{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,11]],"date-time":"2026-06-11T14:17:58Z","timestamp":1781187478073,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":35,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,4]],"date-time":"2025-12-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1764806400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Vet. Sci."],"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Introduction<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      Q fever, caused by\n                      <jats:italic>Coxiella burnetii<\/jats:italic>\n                      , is a disease posing significant zoonotic risk and economic impact, particularly in small ruminants. Screening prior to flock introduction is essential for disease control and prevention, especially in breeding males, given their potential role in pathogen transmission.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      This study combined a survey of small ruminant farmers with a field evaluation to explore the feasibility of pre-purchase screening and to compare the performance of four diagnostic tests: real-time qPCR, antibody ELISA, intradermal testing, and an\n                      <jats:italic>ex-vivo<\/jats:italic>\n                      interferon-gamma (IFN-\u03b3) recall assay.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      The survey (\n                      <jats:italic>n<\/jats:italic>\n                      = 114) revealed widespread gaps in health status awareness and a lack of pre-screening during animal lending or borrowing, with regional differences, although most farmers supported pre-purchase screening. The field evaluation across ten farms (five positive and five negative) showed that the IFN-\u03b3 recall assay provided diagnostic accuracy comparable to ELISA (DSe: 0.80 vs. 0.74; DSp: 0.94 vs. 0.96), with higher positivity rates among unvaccinated animals (\n                      <jats:italic>n<\/jats:italic>\n                      = 122; 42.6% vs. 26.2%). The assay also proved feasible for field use, with a 24-hour antigen stimulation protocol performing equally good as the 48-hour version (AUC: 0.99 vs. 0.98). Real-time qPCR and intradermal testing showed the least utility under field conditions.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Discussion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      Overall, the IFN-\u03b3 recall assay emerges as a promising diagnostic tool for detecting\n                      <jats:italic>C. burnetii<\/jats:italic>\n                      infection in small ruminants, particularly in settings where vaccination history is unknown or incomplete.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2025.1708200","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,4]],"date-time":"2025-12-04T05:16:43Z","timestamp":1764825403000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Pre-purchase screening for Coxiella burnetii in small ruminants: farm acceptance and field evaluation identify the ex-vivo interferon-\u03b3 assay as a promising tool"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"12","author":[{"given":"Anneleen","family":"Matthijs","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fran\u00e7ois","family":"Claine","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xavier","family":"Simons","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ana","family":"Soares","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Damien","family":"Desqueper","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Eva","family":"Van Mael","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Marcella","family":"Mori","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"327","DOI":"10.1051\/vetres:2005010","article-title":"Is Q fever an emerging or re-emerging zoonosis?","volume":"36","author":"Arricau-Bouvery","year":"2005","journal-title":"Vet Res"},{"key":"ref2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"625576","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2020.625576","article-title":"Phylogeography of human and animal Coxiella burnetii strains: genetic fingerprinting of Q fever in Belgium","volume":"10","author":"Tomaiuolo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front Cell Infect Microbiol"},{"key":"ref3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"297","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2009.07.016","article-title":"Q fever","volume":"140","author":"Angelakis","year":"2010","journal-title":"Vet Microbiol"},{"key":"ref4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"502","DOI":"10.1136\/vr.148.16.502","article-title":"Relationships between the shedding of Coxiella burnetii, clinical signs and serological responses of 34 sheep","volume":"148","author":"Berri","year":"2001","journal-title":"Vet Rec"},{"key":"ref5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"423","DOI":"10.1051\/vetres:2003017","article-title":"Experimental Coxiella burnetii infection in pregnant goats: excretion routes","volume":"34","author":"Bouvery","year":"2003","journal-title":"Vet Res"},{"key":"ref6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"827","DOI":"10.1051\/vetres:2006038","article-title":"Shedding routes of Coxiella burnetii in dairy cows: implications for detection and control","volume":"37","author":"Guatteo","year":"2006","journal-title":"Vet Res"},{"key":"ref7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5352","DOI":"10.3168\/jds.2006-815","article-title":"Comparison of Coxiella burnetii shedding in Milk of dairy bovine, caprine, and ovine herds","volume":"90","author":"Rodolakis","year":"2007","journal-title":"J Dairy Sci"},{"key":"ref8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"428","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.00690-08","article-title":"Coxiella burnetii shedding routes and antibody response after outbreaks of Q fever-induced abortion in dairy goat herds","volume":"75","author":"Rousset","year":"2009","journal-title":"Appl Environ Microbiol"},{"key":"ref9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e141","DOI":"10.1111\/tbed.14273","article-title":"Belgian bulk tank milk surveillance program reveals the impact of a continuous vaccination protocol for small ruminants against Coxiella burnetii","volume":"69","author":"Jansen","year":"2022","journal-title":"Transbound Emerg Dis"},{"key":"ref10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1186\/s13690-017-0248-y","article-title":"Farming, Q fever and public health: agricultural practices and beyond","volume":"76","author":"Mori","year":"2018","journal-title":"Arch Public Health"},{"key":"ref11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e75","DOI":"10.1017\/S0950268820000679","article-title":"Prevalence of Coxiella burnetii in German sheep flocks and evaluation of a novel approach to detect an infection via preputial swabs at herd-level","volume":"148","author":"Wolf","year":"2020","journal-title":"Epidemiol Infect"},{"key":"ref12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4188","DOI":"10.1128\/iai.61.10.4188-4195.1993","article-title":"Coxiella burnetii penetration into the reproductive system of male mice, promoting sexual transmission of infection","volume":"61","author":"Kruszewska","year":"1993","journal-title":"Infect Immun"},{"key":"ref13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-5288(97)90210-1","article-title":"Isolation of Coxiella burnetii from bull semen","volume":"62","author":"Kruszewska","year":"1997","journal-title":"Res Vet Sci"},{"key":"ref14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"152","DOI":"10.1016\/j.anireprosci.2014.07.006","article-title":"Infectious pathogens potentially transmitted by semen of the black variety of the Manchega sheep breed: health constraints for conservation purposes","volume":"149","author":"Ruiz-Fons","year":"2014","journal-title":"Anim Reprod Sci"},{"key":"ref15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4392","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2005.04.010","article-title":"Effect of vaccination with phase I and phase II Coxiella burnetii vaccines in pregnant goats","volume":"23","author":"Arricau-Bouvery","year":"2005","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7253","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.02180-15","article-title":"Circulation of Coxiella burnetii in a naturally infected flock of dairy sheep: shedding dynamics, environmental contamination, and genotype diversity","volume":"81","author":"Jouli\u00e9","year":"2015","journal-title":"Appl Environ Microbiol"},{"key":"ref17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e00222","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.00222-17","article-title":"Coxiella burnetii circulation in a naturally infected flock of sheep: individual follow-up of antibodies in serum and Milk","volume":"83","author":"Jouli\u00e9","year":"2017","journal-title":"Appl Environ Microbiol"},{"key":"ref18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1038\/s41541-023-00607-z","article-title":"QuilA\u00ae adjuvanted Coxevac\u00ae sustains Th1-CD8+-type immunity and increases protection in Coxiella burnetii-challenged goats","volume":"8","author":"Tomaiuolo","year":"2023","journal-title":"NPJ Vaccines"},{"key":"ref19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4798","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2023.06.061","article-title":"Humoral and cellular immune responses in sheep following administration of different doses of an inactivated phase I vaccine against Coxiella burnetii","volume":"41","author":"Bauer","year":"2023","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4320","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2008.06.023","article-title":"Prevention of Coxiella burnetii shedding in infected dairy herds using a phase I C. burnetii inactivated vaccine","volume":"26","author":"Guatteo","year":"2008","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1016\/j.provac.2009.07.015","article-title":"Investigation of humoral and cellular immunity of dairy cattle after one or two year of vaccination with a phase I Coxiella vaccine","volume":"1","author":"Rodolakis","year":"2009","journal-title":"Procedia Vaccinol"},{"key":"ref22","volume-title":"Outils de mesure de l\u2019immunit\u00e9 de bovins vaccines contre la fi\u00e8vre Q \u00e0 l\u2019aide d\u2019un vaccin inactive phase I,., These pour le dipl\u00f4me d\u2019Etat de Docteur V\u00e9t\u00e9rinaire","author":"Clement","year":"2008"},{"key":"ref23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1198\/1085711031526","article-title":"Hierarchical models for estimating herd prevalence and test accuracy in the absence of a gold standard","volume":"8","author":"Hanson","year":"2003","journal-title":"JABES"},{"key":"ref24","author":"Plummer","year":"2006"},{"key":"ref25","volume-title":"Using R to run \u201cJAGS.\u201d","author":"Yu-Sung Su","year":"2024"},{"key":"ref26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1574-695X.2011.00876.x","article-title":"The 2007\u20132010 Q fever epidemic in the Netherlands: characteristics of notified acute Q fever patients and the association with dairy goat farming","volume":"64","author":"Dijkstra","year":"2012","journal-title":"FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol"},{"key":"ref27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"329","DOI":"10.1007\/978-94-007-4315-1_17","article-title":"Epidemic Q fever in humans in the Netherlands","volume":"984","author":"van der Hoek","year":"2012","journal-title":"Adv Exp Med Biol"},{"key":"ref28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1017\/S0950268810002268","article-title":"The Q fever epidemic in the Netherlands: history, onset, response and reflection","volume":"139","author":"Roest","year":"2011","journal-title":"Epidemiol Infect"},{"key":"ref29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"635","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens11060635","article-title":"Monitoring and surveillance of small ruminant health in the Netherlands","volume":"11","author":"Dijkstra","year":"2022","journal-title":"Pathogens"},{"key":"ref30","first-page":"134","article-title":"The value of skin test in Q fever convalescents and vaccinees as indicator of antigen exposure and inducer of antibody recall","volume":"28","author":"Kaz\u00e1r","year":"1984","journal-title":"Acta Virol"},{"key":"ref31","first-page":"73","article-title":"Antibody response in man following a small intradermal inoculation with Coxiella burnetii phase I vaccine","volume":"23","author":"Peacock","year":"1979","journal-title":"Acta Virol"},{"key":"ref32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1177\/104063870101300204","article-title":"Comparison of purified protein derivatives and effect of skin testing on results of a commercial gamma interferon assay for diagnosis of tuberculosis in cattle","volume":"13","author":"Whipple","year":"2001","journal-title":"J Vet Diagn Invest"},{"key":"ref33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"701811","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2021.701811","article-title":"Whole blood interferon \u03b3 release is a more sensitive marker of prior exposure to Coxiella burnetii than are antibody responses","volume":"12","author":"Scholzen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front Immunol"},{"key":"ref34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1186\/1297-9716-44-67","article-title":"Q fever in pregnant goats: humoral and cellular immune responses","volume":"44","author":"Roest","year":"2013","journal-title":"Vet Res"},{"key":"ref35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1499","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2021.01.062","article-title":"Humoral immune response to Q fever vaccination of three sheep flocks naturally pre-infected with Coxiella burnetii","volume":"39","author":"Bauer","year":"2021","journal-title":"Vaccine"}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Veterinary Science"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fvets.2025.1708200\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,4]],"date-time":"2025-12-04T05:16:45Z","timestamp":1764825405000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fvets.2025.1708200\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,4]]},"references-count":35,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fvets.2025.1708200"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fvets.2025.1708200","relation":{},"ISSN":["2297-1769"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2297-1769","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,4]]},"article-number":"1708200"}}