{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,24]],"date-time":"2026-03-24T13:09:52Z","timestamp":1774357792535,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":35,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,24]],"date-time":"2026-03-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1774310400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Vet. Sci."],"abstract":"<jats:p>In August 2025, Mozambique's Central Veterinary Laboratory, part of the Agricultural Research Institute, received broiler chicken carcasses for investigation after reports of elevated flock mortality. Pooled samples from the carcasses (i.e. trachea and lung) tested positive for influenza A. Subsequent subtyping ruled out hemagglutinin subtypes H5 and H7. Further analysis including tests for Newcastle disease virus, infectious bronchitis virus, infectious laryngotracheitis, and avian influenza subtype H9 confirmed the presence of H9. Whole-genome sequencing using Nanopore technology identified the virus as H9N2. Phylogenetic analysis of the hemagglutinin gene classified the virus within lineage G5.5, showing closer genetic similarity to strains circulating in the Middle East (e.g., Saudi Arabia, Jordan, and Israel) than to those in East or West Africa. This report is the first documented detection of H9N2 avian influenza in Mozambique, with significant implications for regional food security and disease management.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2026.1765651","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,24]],"date-time":"2026-03-24T12:32:50Z","timestamp":1774355570000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Case Report: Detection and characterization of avian influenza virus H9N2 in a broiler farm in Mozambique, 2025"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Iolanda Vieira Anahory","family":"Monjane","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Central Veterinary Laboratory, Directorate of Animal Science, Agrarian Research Institute of Mozambique","place":["Maputo, Mozambique"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Virg\u00ednia","family":"Nhabomba","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Central Veterinary Laboratory, Directorate of Animal Science, Agrarian Research Institute of Mozambique","place":["Maputo, Mozambique"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Esmeralda","family":"Tamele","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Central Veterinary Laboratory, Directorate of Animal Science, Agrarian Research Institute of Mozambique","place":["Maputo, Mozambique"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Hern\u00e2ni","family":"Djedje","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Central Veterinary Laboratory, Directorate of Animal Science, Agrarian Research Institute of Mozambique","place":["Maputo, Mozambique"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Afonso","family":"Sussuro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Central Veterinary Laboratory, Directorate of Animal Science, Agrarian Research Institute of Mozambique","place":["Maputo, Mozambique"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Teresa Marlene","family":"Van-D\u00fanem","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Central Veterinary Laboratory, Directorate of Animal Science, Agrarian Research Institute of Mozambique","place":["Maputo, Mozambique"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ilda","family":"Mandlate","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Central Veterinary Laboratory, Directorate of Animal Science, Agrarian Research Institute of Mozambique","place":["Maputo, Mozambique"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Derc\u00edlia M.","family":"Arone","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Directorate of Health and Biosafety, Ministry of Agriculture Ambient and Fishery","place":["Maputo, Mozambique"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Zacarias E.","family":"Massicame","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Directorate of Health and Biosafety, Ministry of Agriculture Ambient and Fishery","place":["Maputo, Mozambique"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Job","family":"Massingue","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Provincial Directorate of Agriculture and Fisheries","place":["Maputo, Mozambique"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Almiro R.","family":"Tivane","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Respiratory Virus Surveillance System, Instituto Nacional de Sa\u00fade","place":["Maputo, Mozambique"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jorf\u00e9lia J.","family":"Chila\u00fale","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Virology Laboratory, Instituto Nacional de Sa\u00fade","place":["Maputo, Mozambique"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Daisy","family":"Zacarias","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Virology Laboratory, Instituto Nacional de Sa\u00fade","place":["Maputo, Mozambique"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"D\u00e9rcio","family":"Cha\u00faque","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Virology Laboratory, Instituto Nacional de Sa\u00fade","place":["Maputo, Mozambique"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Domingos","family":"Mulungo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Virology Laboratory, Instituto Nacional de Sa\u00fade","place":["Maputo, Mozambique"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Charles Euloge","family":"Lamien","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Animal Production and Health Laboratory, Joint FAO\/IAEA Centre of Nuclear Techniques in Food and Agriculture, Department of Nuclear Sciences and Applications, International Atomic Energy Agency","place":["Vienna, Austria"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Irene Kasindi","family":"Meki","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Animal Production and Health Laboratory, Joint FAO\/IAEA Centre of Nuclear Techniques in Food and Agriculture, Department of Nuclear Sciences and Applications, International Atomic Energy Agency","place":["Vienna, Austria"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"William G.","family":"Dundon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Animal Production and Health Laboratory, Joint FAO\/IAEA Centre of Nuclear Techniques in Food and Agriculture, Department of Nuclear Sciences and Applications, International Atomic Energy Agency","place":["Vienna, Austria"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"620","DOI":"10.3390\/v11070620","article-title":"A global perspective on H9N2 avian influenza virus","volume":"11","author":"Peacock","year":"2019","journal-title":"Viruses."},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3201\/eid3008.231176","article-title":"Proposal for a global classification and nomenclature system for A\/H9 influenza viruses","volume":"30","author":"Fusaro","year":"2024","journal-title":"Emerg Infect Dis."},{"key":"B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.17582\/journal.jvs\/2024\/12.1.10.25","article-title":"Epidemiological situation and spread of avian influenza H9N2 in poultry in North Africa","volume":"12","author":"Kareche","year":"2024","journal-title":"J Virol Sci."},{"key":"B4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"470","DOI":"10.1080\/03079457.2019.1624687","article-title":"Avian influenza H9N2 subtype in Ghana: virus characterization and evidence of co-infection","volume":"48","author":"Awuni","year":"2019","journal-title":"Avian Pathol."},{"key":"B5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1092","DOI":"10.1080\/22221751.2020.1763858","article-title":"Genetic characterization of the first detected human case of low pathogenic avian influenza A\/H9N2 in sub-Saharan Africa, Senegal","volume":"9","author":"Jallow","year":"2020","journal-title":"Emerg Microbes Infect."},{"key":"B6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"753","DOI":"10.1080\/22221751.2021.1908097","article-title":"Antigenic and molecular characterization of low pathogenic avian influenza A(H9N2) viruses in sub-Saharan Africa from 2017 through 2019","volume":"10","author":"Fusade-Boyer","year":"2021","journal-title":"Emerg Microbes Infect."},{"key":"B7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1445","DOI":"10.3390\/v13081445","article-title":"Live bird markets in Nigeria: a potential reservoir for h9n2 avian influenza viruses","volume":"13","author":"Sulaiman","year":"2021","journal-title":"Viruses."},{"key":"B8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"veae011","DOI":"10.1093\/ve\/veae011","article-title":"Genetic insights of H9N2 avian influenza viruses circulating in Mali and phylogeographic patterns in Northern and Western Africa","volume":"10","author":"Sanogo","year":"2024","journal-title":"Virus Evol"},{"key":"B9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"272","DOI":"10.1007\/s11259-025-10847-0","article-title":"Detection and characterization of avian influenza H9N2 in a broiler farm in Mauritania; 2024","volume":"49","author":"Beyit","year":"2025","journal-title":"Vet Res Commun"},{"key":"B10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2074","DOI":"10.3390\/v14092074","article-title":"Genetic evolution of avian influenza A (H9N2) viruses isolated from domestic poultry in Uganda reveals evidence of mammalian host adaptation, increased virulence and reduced sensitivity to Baloxavir","volume":"14","author":"Atim","year":"2022","journal-title":"Viruses."},{"key":"B11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1417","DOI":"10.3390\/v16091417","article-title":"Characterization of avian influenza viruses detected in Kenyan live bird markets and wild bird habitats reveal genetically diverse subtypes and high proportion of A(H9N2), 2018-2020","volume":"16","author":"Munyua","year":"2024","journal-title":"Viruses."},{"key":"B12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"313","DOI":"10.1637\/8781-040109-Reg.1","article-title":"Phylogenetic analysis of influenza A viruses (H6N8, H1N8, H4N2, H9N2, H10N7) isolated from wild birds, ducks, and ostriches in South Africa from 2007 to 2009","volume":"54","author":"Abolnik","year":"2010","journal-title":"Avian Dis."},{"key":"B13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2321993","DOI":"10.1080\/22221751.2024.2321993","article-title":"H7N6 highly pathogenic avian influenza in Mozambique, 2023","volume":"13","author":"Monjane","year":"2024","journal-title":"Emerg Microbes Infect."},{"key":"B14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3256","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.40.9.3256-3260.2002","article-title":"Development of a real-time reverse transcriptase PCR assay for type A influenza virus and the avian H5 and H7 hemagglutinin subtypes","volume":"40","author":"Spackman","year":"2002","journal-title":"J Clin Microbiol."},{"key":"B15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virol.2017.11.021","article-title":"A multiplex real-time RT-PCR for simultaneous detection of four most common avian respiratory viruses","volume":"515","author":"Laamiri","year":"2018","journal-title":"Virol."},{"key":"B16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1263","DOI":"10.3390\/v14061263","article-title":"Redesign and validation of a real-time RT-PCR to improve surveillance for avian influenza viruses of the H9 Subtype","volume":"14","author":"Panzarin","year":"2022","journal-title":"Viruses."},{"key":"B17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"10309","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01109-09","article-title":"Single-reaction genomic amplification accelerates sequencing and vaccine production for classical and Swine origin human influenza a viruses","volume":"83","author":"Zhou","year":"2009","journal-title":"J Virol."},{"key":"B18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3022","DOI":"10.1093\/molbev\/msab120","article-title":"MEGA11: molecular evolutionary genetics analysis version 11","volume":"38","author":"Tamura","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mol Biol Evol."},{"key":"B19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7565","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0900877106","article-title":"Minimal molecular constraints for respiratory droplet transmission of an avian-human H9N2 influenza A virus","volume":"106","author":"Sorrell","year":"2009","journal-title":"Proc Natl Acad Sci USA."},{"key":"B20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"156","DOI":"10.1006\/viro.2000.0799","article-title":"H9N2 influenza A viruses from poultry in Asia have human virus-like receptor specificity","volume":"281","author":"Matrosovich","year":"2001","journal-title":"Virol"},{"key":"B21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1790","DOI":"10.1016\/j.meegid.2011.07.025","article-title":"Multiple amino acid substitutions involved in enhanced pathogenicity of LPAI H9N2 in mice","volume":"11","author":"Zhang","year":"2011","journal-title":"Infect Genet Evol."},{"key":"B22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"19474","DOI":"10.1038\/srep19474","article-title":"PB2-588 V promotes the mammalian adaptation of H10N8, H7N9 and H9N2 avian influenza viruses","volume":"6","author":"Xiao","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci Rep."},{"key":"B23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"96","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms19010096","article-title":"Evolution and virulence of influenza A virus protein PB1-F2","volume":"19","author":"Kamal","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int J Mol Sci."},{"key":"B24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virol.2005.07.003","article-title":"Detection of amantadine-resistant variants among avian influenza viruses isolated in North America and Asia","volume":"341","author":"Ilyushina","year":"2005","journal-title":"Virol."},{"key":"B25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"721","DOI":"10.1637\/aviandiseases-D-19-00070","article-title":"Isolation and characterization of avian influenza H9N2 viruses from different avian species in Pakistan 2016-17","volume":"63","author":"Alyas","year":"2019","journal-title":"Avian Dis."},{"key":"B26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"669","DOI":"10.1111\/tbed.14033","article-title":"H9N2 influenza virus spillover into wild birds from poultry in China bind to human-type receptors and transmit in mammals via respiratory droplets","volume":"69","author":"Zhang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Transbound Emerg Dis."},{"key":"B27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"685","DOI":"10.3390\/v17050685","article-title":"Genetic characterization of Kazakhstan isolates: avian influenza H9N2 viruses demonstrate their potential to infect mammals","volume":"17","author":"Baikara","year":"2025","journal-title":"Viruses."},{"key":"B28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"824179","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2021.824179","article-title":"Infectious bronchitis virus infection increases pathogenicity of H9N2 avian influenza virus by inducing severe inflammatory response","volume":"8","author":"Kong","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front Vet Sci."},{"key":"B29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"786","DOI":"10.3390\/v17060786","article-title":"Surveillance and coinfection dynamics of infectious bronchitis virus and avian influenza H9N2 in Moroccan broiler farms (2021\u20132023): phylogenetic insights and impact on poultry health","volume":"17","author":"Regragui","year":"2025","journal-title":"Viruses"},{"key":"B30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/1746-6148-8-104","article-title":"Co-infection of broilers with Ornithobacterium rhinotracheale and H9N2 avian influenza virus","volume":"8","author":"Pan","year":"2012","journal-title":"BMC Vet Res."},{"key":"B31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1637\/aviandiseases-D-21-00114","article-title":"Rate of multiple viral and bacterial co-infection(s) in influenza A\/H9N2-infected broiler flocks","volume":"66","author":"Amin","year":"2022","journal-title":"Avian Dis."},{"key":"B32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2601","DOI":"10.3390\/v14122601","article-title":"Emergence of high pathogenicity avian influenza virus H5N1 clade 2344b in wild birds and poultry in Botswana","volume":"14","author":"Letsholo","year":"2022","journal-title":"Viruses"},{"key":"B33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"757","DOI":"10.1080\/22221751.2022.2043729","article-title":"Highly pathogenic avian influenza (A\/H5N1) virus outbreaks in Lesotho, May 2021","volume":"11","author":"Makalo","year":"2022","journal-title":"Emerg Microbes Infect."},{"key":"B34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2167610","DOI":"10.1080\/22221751.2023.2167610","article-title":"Highly pathogenic avian influenza H5N1 virus outbreak among Cape cormorants (Phalacrocorax capensis) in Namibia, 2022","volume":"12","author":"Molini","year":"2023","journal-title":"Emerg Microbes Infect."},{"key":"B35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"214","DOI":"10.7589\/2019-03-067","article-title":"Avian influenza H5N8 outbreak in African Penguins (Spheniscus demersus), Namibia, 2019","volume":"56","author":"Molini","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Wildl Dis."}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Veterinary Science"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fvets.2026.1765651\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,24]],"date-time":"2026-03-24T12:32:51Z","timestamp":1774355571000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fvets.2026.1765651\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,24]]},"references-count":35,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fvets.2026.1765651"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fvets.2026.1765651","relation":{},"ISSN":["2297-1769"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2297-1769","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,24]]},"article-number":"1765651"}}