{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,5]],"date-time":"2026-05-05T03:00:24Z","timestamp":1777950024358,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":34,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,4]],"date-time":"2026-05-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1777852800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Tertiary Education Trust Fund (TETFUND) under the Institution-Based Research (IBR) Intervention","award":["TETF\/DR&D\/CE\/UNI\/NSUKKA\/BR\/2024\/VOL.I"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["TETF\/DR&D\/CE\/UNI\/NSUKKA\/BR\/2024\/VOL.I"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Vet. Sci."],"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Accurate detection and monitoring of the oestrous cycle in West African Dwarf (WAD) goats is indispensable for reproductive management. Vaginal cytology is commonly used, but different collection methods may vary in diagnostic efficacy, smear quality, and animal safety. This study compared the diagnostic efficacy of pipette and swab stick methods for monitoring the oestrous cycle of WAD goats.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      Four cyclic WAD goats were sampled repeatedly for four consecutive days using both pipette and swab stick methods. A total of 16 samples were collected from each doe during the 4-day sampling period. Smears were evaluated for cell types (parabasal, intermediate, superficial), debris, and cellular distortion. Animal response to sampling was assessed via bleating and presence of blood cells to determine trauma. Economic and comprehensive diagnostic cost-effectiveness were also evaluated. Data were analyzed using paired-sample\n                      <jats:italic>t<\/jats:italic>\n                      -test, Chi-square, and Fisher\u2019s Exact Test where appropriate.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      Swab stick smears yielded a higher proportion of superficial cells (9.41\u202f\u00b1\u202f2.35) than pipette smears (4.04\u202f\u00b1\u202f0.93,\n                      <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u202f=\u202f0.03), while parabasal cells were higher in pipette smears (1.97\u202f\u00b1\u202f0.43 vs. 0.28\u202f\u00b1\u202f0.08,\n                      <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u202f=\u202f0.001). Heavy debris was observed more frequently in pipette smears (68.8%) than swab stick smears (25.0%,\n                      <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u202f=\u202f0.032). No pipette smears exhibited cellular distortion, whereas swab stick smears showed mild to severe distortion (Fisher\u2019s Exact Test,\n                      <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u202f=\u202f0.007). Pipette sample collection caused greater trauma, indicated by prolonged bleating and moderate blood cell presence, compared with swab sampling. Although pipettes were more economical due to their lower cost and reusability, swab sticks demonstrated higher overall diagnostic cost-effectiveness when factors such as smear quality, trauma, and diagnostic yield were taken into account.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Both methods are effective for monitoring the oestrous cycle in WAD goats; however, swab sticks offer higher diagnostic yield in detecting heat and lower trauma, whereas pipettes are more economical. Selection of method should balance cost, diagnostic performance, and animal welfare. Future studies with larger sample sizes are recommended to confirm these findings.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2026.1768722","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,4]],"date-time":"2026-05-04T05:34:27Z","timestamp":1777872867000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Comparative diagnostic efficacy of swab stick and pipette sampling techniques for vaginal cytology in oestrous detection of West African Dwarf Goats"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Ugochinyere J.","family":"Njoga","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Obstetrics and Reproductive Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Nigeria","place":["Nsukka, Nigeria"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ugochi M.","family":"Nwaibe","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Obstetrics and Reproductive Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Nigeria","place":["Nsukka, Nigeria"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ibe N.","family":"Patrick","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Obstetrics and Reproductive Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Nigeria","place":["Nsukka, Nigeria"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Onoh E.","family":"Chukwubuike","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Obstetrics and Reproductive Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Nigeria","place":["Nsukka, Nigeria"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Izuchukwu S.","family":"Ochiogu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Obstetrics and Reproductive Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Nigeria","place":["Nsukka, Nigeria"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"John I.","family":"Ihedioha","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Nigeria","place":["Nsukka, Nigeria"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Kenneth O.","family":"Anya","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Obstetrics and Reproductive Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Nigeria","place":["Nsukka, Nigeria"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Emmanuel O.","family":"Njoga","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Agriculture and Animal Health, College of Agriculture Environmental Sciences, University of South Africa, Florida Campus","place":["Johannesburg, South Africa"]},{"name":"Department of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Nigeria","place":["Nsukka, Nigeria"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"James W.","family":"Oguttu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Agriculture and Animal Health, College of Agriculture Environmental Sciences, University of South Africa, Florida Campus","place":["Johannesburg, South Africa"]},{"name":"Department of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Nigeria","place":["Nsukka, Nigeria"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1016\/j.smallrumres.2005.06.011","article-title":"Goats\u2014a pathway out of poverty","volume":"60","author":"Peacock","year":"2005","journal-title":"Small Rumin Res"},{"key":"ref2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.1007\/s11250-022-03074-1","article-title":"Typology and 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