{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,2]],"date-time":"2026-10-02T17:44:52Z","timestamp":1790963092485,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":48,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,8]],"date-time":"2026-06-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1780876800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Vet. Sci."],"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Introduction<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Foot-and-Mouth Disease (FMD) is a global threat to cloven-hooved livestock and wildlife species. The causative agent, Foot-and-Mouth Disease Virus (FMDV) can be transmitted via aerosols, droplets, and fomites including humans. This makes the need for biosecurity measures that interrupt FMDV transmission during an outbreak critical. However, quantitative data supporting the effectiveness of many recommended biosecurity measures is limited. The purpose of this scoping review was to identify peer-reviewed literature that described or evaluated biosecurity practices to mitigate FMD risk at the farm level in order to inform planning and preparedness efforts in the United States.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      A systematic search of four databases identified 3,153 unique records. Included reports had to be original, peer-reviewed research, published in English, include information about a biosecurity measure applied at the farm level to mitigate FMD risk, and address at least one major domestic livestock species in the United States (cattle, sheep, goat, swine, American bison). Reports describing results generated entirely\n                      <jats:italic>in-silico<\/jats:italic>\n                      or with surrogate viruses were not included.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>22 reports were included in this review describing data from 16 (one unreported) unique countries published between 1998 and 2024. Two reports describing experimental studies evaluated handwashing, showering, and changing outerwear, which were found to have variable efficacy. The use of biosecurity measures applied to livestock and their products, personnel and visitors, vehicles and fomites, and disinfection were identified from 20 field reports and observational studies. No biosecurity measures that appeared in more than one report were identified as being consistently effective at mitigating disease risk in a field setting.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Discussion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>The inconsistent and limited evidence to support the effectiveness of specific biosecurity measures in field settings identified through this review makes meta-analysis infeasible at this time and hampers the ability of animal health officials and animal caretakers to plan for and respond appropriately during an FMD outbreak. Improved reporting of biosecurity measure implementation would improve our ability to assess their effectiveness and develop evidence-based biosecurity recommendations for FMD preparedness and response plans.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2026.1819419","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,8]],"date-time":"2026-06-08T05:33:50Z","timestamp":1780896830000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["A scoping review of farm-level biosecurity measure effectiveness against foot-and-mouth disease to inform planning and preparedness efforts in the United States"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"MaRyka R.","family":"Smith","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Outcomes Research and Epidemiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University","place":["Manhattan, KS, United 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