{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,4]],"date-time":"2026-05-04T13:45:59Z","timestamp":1777902359120,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":100,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,1]],"date-time":"2026-05-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1777593600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Vet. Sci."],"abstract":"<jats:p>\n                    Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) is a complex multifactorial infectious disorder of the female reproductive tract, associated with severe long-term sequelae including infertility, ectopic pregnancy, and chronic pelvic pain, as well as elevated risks of endometriosis, cardiometabolic diseases, and colorectal cancer. Owing to ethical constraints on human research, animal models have become indispensable tools for investigating PID pathogenesis, evaluating therapeutic interventions, and developing novel diagnostic strategies. This review systematically summarizes current advances in PID animal model construction, with a focus on three core induction categories: pathogen, chemical, and physical induction methods. Pathogen induction utilizes single or multiple microorganisms (including\n                    <jats:italic>Escherichia coli<\/jats:italic>\n                    ,\n                    <jats:italic>Staphylococcus aureus<\/jats:italic>\n                    ,\n                    <jats:italic>Chlamydia trachomatis<\/jats:italic>\n                    , and\n                    <jats:italic>Ureaplasma urealyticum<\/jats:italic>\n                    ) to recapitulate the infectious etiology of clinical PID. Chemical induction employs agents such as phenol mucilage, hydrochloric acid combined with lipopolysaccharide, and exogenous estrogen to simulate inflammatory processes via direct tissue damage or immune modulation. Physical induction methods include mechanical injury to disrupt mucosal barriers and foreign body implantation to mimic intrauterine device-related chronic inflammation. We further analyze integrated induction strategies that combine multiple approaches to improve model stability and pathological fidelity, and compare the strengths, limitations, and applicable scenarios of each modeling method. Finally, we discuss current gaps in PID animal model research, including the lack of standardized protocols, insufficient characterization of chronic disease progression, and limited translational relevance to human disease, and propose priorities for future model development to support preclinical research on PID prevention and treatment.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2026.1843100","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,1]],"date-time":"2026-05-01T11:27:08Z","timestamp":1777634828000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Current methods and mechanisms for animal models of pelvic inflammatory disease: a review"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Guanglong","family":"Wang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Inner Mongolia Medical University","place":["Hohhot, China"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Suo","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Inner Mongolia Medical University","place":["Hohhot, China"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.15585\/mmwr.rr7004a1","article-title":"Sexually transmitted infections treatment guidelines, 2021","volume":"70","author":"Workowski","year":"2021","journal-title":"MMWR Recomm Rep"},{"key":"ref2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"S23","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiab116","article-title":"A review of the challenges and complexities in the diagnosis, etiology, epidemiology, and pathogenesis of pelvic inflammatory disease","volume":"224","author":"Hillier","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Infect Dis"},{"key":"ref3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"307","DOI":"10.1097\/OLQ.0b013e31815b07dd","article-title":"Quality of life utilities for pelvic inflammatory disease health states","volume":"35","author":"Smith","year":"2008","journal-title":"Sex Transm Dis"},{"key":"ref4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"272","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijantimicag.2015.05.004","article-title":"A review of antibiotic therapy for pelvic inflammatory disease","volume":"46","author":"Duarte","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int J Antimicrob Agents"},{"key":"ref5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1089\/jwh.2023.0300","article-title":"Association between pelvic inflammatory disease and risk of endometriosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"33","author":"Ye","year":"2024","journal-title":"J Womens Health (Larchmt)"},{"key":"ref6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1002\/ijgo.13066","article-title":"Pelvic inflammatory disease and risk of cancer: a nationwide cohort study","volume":"149","author":"S\u00f8gaard","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int J Gynaecol Obstet"},{"key":"ref7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.1186\/s12905-023-02214-5","article-title":"Risk of cardiometabolic outcomes among women with a history of pelvic inflammatory disease: a retrospective matched cohort study from the UK","volume":"23","author":"Okoth","year":"2023","journal-title":"BMC Womens Health"},{"key":"ref8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"23247096221106755","DOI":"10.1177\/23247096221106755","article-title":"Colorectal carcinoma in the background of pelvic inflammatory disease","volume":"10","author":"Kalas","year":"2022","journal-title":"J Investig Med High Impact Case Rep"},{"key":"ref9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"208","DOI":"10.1017\/S0950268816002065","article-title":"Pelvic inflammatory disease and salpingitis: incidence of primary and repeat episodes in England","volume":"145","author":"Price","year":"2017","journal-title":"Epidemiol Infect"},{"key":"ref10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"S103","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiaa771","article-title":"The burden of and trends in pelvic inflammatory disease in the United States, 2006-2016","volume":"224","author":"Kreisel","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Infect Dis"},{"key":"ref11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1894","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-023-16663-y","article-title":"Global burden of pelvic inflammatory disease and ectopic pregnancy from 1990 to 2019","volume":"23","author":"He","year":"2023","journal-title":"BMC Public Health"},{"key":"ref12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"929","DOI":"10.1067\/mob.2002.121625","article-title":"Effectiveness of inpatient and outpatient treatment strategies for women with pelvic inflammatory disease: results from the pelvic inflammatory disease evaluation and clinical health (PEACH) randomized trial","volume":"186","author":"Ness","year":"2002","journal-title":"Am J Obstet Gynecol"},{"key":"ref13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajog.2020.10.019","article-title":"Bacterial vaginosis and its association with infertility, endometritis, and pelvic inflammatory disease","volume":"224","author":"Ravel","year":"2021","journal-title":"Am J Obstet Gynecol"},{"key":"ref14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"345","DOI":"10.33073\/pjm-2021-033","article-title":"Characteristics of vaginal microbiome in women with pelvic inflammatory disease in Korea","volume":"70","author":"Kim","year":"2021","journal-title":"Pol J Microbiol"},{"key":"ref15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"13089","DOI":"10.2147\/JIR.S530521","article-title":"Druggable targets for pelvic inflammatory disease: Mendelian randomization and experimental validation","volume":"18","author":"Dang","year":"2025","journal-title":"J Inflamm Res"},{"key":"ref16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"970","DOI":"10.1099\/jmm.0.019281-0","article-title":"Further observations on the murine model of Mycoplasma hominis infection","volume":"59","author":"Taylor-Robinson","year":"2010","journal-title":"J Med Microbiol"},{"key":"ref17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1710","DOI":"10.21037\/atm-21-3345","article-title":"Identifying the clinical presentations, progression, and sequela of pelvic inflammatory disease through physiological, histological and ultrastructural evaluation of a rat animal model","volume":"9","author":"Fan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ann Transl Med"},{"key":"ref18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"891","DOI":"10.1016\/0002-9378(75)90736-X","article-title":"Anaerobic infections of the female genital tract","volume":"122","author":"Sweet","year":"1975","journal-title":"Am J Obstet Gynecol"},{"key":"ref19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"435","DOI":"10.1016\/S0002-9378(96)70158-8","article-title":"Role of bacterial vaginosis-associated microorganisms in endometritis","volume":"175","author":"Hillier","year":"1996","journal-title":"Am J Obstet Gynecol"},{"key":"ref20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"990","DOI":"10.1086\/423963","article-title":"PID evaluation and clinical health study investigators. Bacterial vaginosis and anaerobic bacteria are associated with endometritis","volume":"39","author":"Haggerty","year":"2004","journal-title":"Clin Infect Dis"},{"key":"ref21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"344","DOI":"10.1097\/OLQ.0000000000001164","article-title":"Presence and concentrations of select bacterial vaginosis-associated Bacteria are associated with increased risk of pelvic inflammatory disease","volume":"47","author":"Haggerty","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sex Transm Dis"},{"key":"ref22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"880","DOI":"10.1016\/0002-9378(80)91077-7","article-title":"Incidence, prevalence, and trends of acute pelvic inflammatory disease and its consequences in industrialized countries","volume":"138","author":"Westr\u00f6m","year":"1980","journal-title":"Am J Obstet Gynecol"},{"key":"ref23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e00413-20","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.00413-20","article-title":"Chlamydia-specific IgA secretion in the female reproductive tract induced via per-oral immunization confers protection against primary Chlamydia challenge","volume":"89","author":"Shillova","year":"2020","journal-title":"Infect Immun"},{"key":"ref24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"457","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-3468(83)80200-0","article-title":"Persistent incompetence of the cervix in female infants with congenital abnormalities of the pelvic viscera and perineum","volume":"18","author":"Feins","year":"1983","journal-title":"J Pediatr Surg"},{"key":"ref25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejogrb.2019.11.004","article-title":"Risk factors for recurrent pelvic inflammatory disease","volume":"244","author":"Safrai","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol"},{"key":"ref26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"733","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ogc.2019.07.007","article-title":"Nongynecologic causes of pelvic pain: ultrasound first","volume":"46","author":"Mathur","year":"2019","journal-title":"Obstet Gynecol Clin N Am"},{"key":"ref27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"581","DOI":"10.1007\/s00431-012-1786-5","article-title":"Beyond \"safe sex\"--can we fight adolescent pelvic inflammatory disease?","volume":"172","author":"Abu Raya","year":"2013","journal-title":"Eur J Pediatr"},{"key":"ref28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"9215","DOI":"10.1007\/s00210-025-03858-w","article-title":"Enhanced inflammatory and oxidative response mitigation by acetyl-L-carnitine in a rat model of pelvic inflammatory disease","volume":"398","author":"Sultan","year":"2025","journal-title":"Naunyn Schmiedeberg's Arch Pharmacol"},{"key":"ref29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e20220106","DOI":"10.1590\/1984-3143-ar2022-0106","article-title":"Establishment of pelvic inflammatory disease model induced by vaginal injection of Ureaplasma urealyticum liquids combined with fatigue and hunger","volume":"20","author":"Liu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Anim Reprod"},{"key":"ref30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"503","DOI":"10.1016\/S1074-3804(05)60527-0","article-title":"Effects of laparoscopic lavage on adhesion formation and peritoneum in an animal model of pelvic inflammatory disease","volume":"9","author":"Roberts","year":"2002","journal-title":"J Am Assoc Gynecol Laparosc"},{"key":"ref31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e01241-14","DOI":"10.1128\/mBio.01241-14","article-title":"Early microRNA expression profile as a prognostic biomarker for the development of pelvic inflammatory disease in a mouse model of chlamydial genital infection","volume":"5","author":"Yeruva","year":"2014","journal-title":"mBio"},{"key":"ref32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4940","DOI":"10.19540\/j.cnki.cjcmm.20190804.301","article-title":"Mechanisms of Fuke Qianjin capsules in treatment of pelvic inflammatory disease based on GC-MS metabolomics","volume":"44","author":"Xia","year":"2019","journal-title":"Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi"},{"key":"ref33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"104154","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jri.2023.104154","article-title":"Effect of Kangfuxiaomi suppository on pelvic inflammatory disease in rats","volume":"160","author":"Wang","year":"2023","journal-title":"J Reprod Immunol"},{"key":"ref34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5994","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2011.06.037","article-title":"A novel guinea pig model of Chlamydia trachomatis genital tract infection","volume":"29","author":"de Jonge","year":"2011","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"120393","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jep.2025.120393","article-title":"Metabolomics and mass spectrometry imaging reveal the effect of Prunella vulgaris oil on chronic pelvic inflammatory disease: exploring the mechanism from inhibition of PANX1","volume":"353","author":"Hou","year":"2025","journal-title":"J Ethnopharmacol"},{"key":"ref36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1263","DOI":"10.1007\/s00404-014-3150-7","article-title":"Diagnosis of pelvic inflammatory disease (PID): intra-operative findings and comparison of vaginal and intra-abdominal cultures","volume":"289","author":"Schindlbeck","year":"2014","journal-title":"Arch Gynecol Obstet"},{"key":"ref37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e9192","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0009192","article-title":"Specific strains of Escherichia coli are pathogenic for the endometrium of cattle and cause pelvic inflammatory disease in cattle and mice","volume":"5","author":"Sheldon","year":"2010","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"ref38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"90","DOI":"10.5217\/ir.2014.12.2.90","article-title":"Lipopolysaccharide: basic biochemistry, intracellular signaling, and physiological impacts in the gut","volume":"12","author":"Rhee","year":"2014","journal-title":"Intest Res"},{"key":"ref39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"774","DOI":"10.1002\/jcp.20900","article-title":"Corticotropin releasing factor receptor 1 (CRF1) and CRF2 agonists exert an anti-inflammatory effect during the early phase of inflammation suppressing LPS-induced TNF-alpha release from macrophages via induction of COX-2 and PGE2","volume":"210","author":"Tsatsanis","year":"2007","journal-title":"J Cell Physiol"},{"key":"ref40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"603","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.00134-14","article-title":"Staphylococcus aureus infections: epidemiology, pathophysiology, clinical manifestations, and management","volume":"28","author":"Tong","year":"2015","journal-title":"Clin Microbiol Rev"},{"key":"ref41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"835","DOI":"10.1007\/s10753-020-01297-8","article-title":"Hydroxysafflor yellow a inhibits Staphylococcus aureus-induced mouse endometrial inflammation via TLR2-mediated NF-kB and MAPK pathway","volume":"44","author":"He","year":"2021","journal-title":"Inflammation"},{"key":"ref42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5042048","DOI":"10.1155\/2021\/5042048","article-title":"Therapeutic role of miR-30a in lipoteichoic acid-induced endometritis via targeting the MyD88\/Nox2\/ROS signaling","volume":"2021","author":"Jiang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Oxidative Med Cell Longev"},{"key":"ref43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1016\/j.intimp.2019.02.033","article-title":"Matrine alleviates Staphylococcus aureus lipoteichoic acid-induced endometritis via suppression of TLR2-mediated NF-\u03baB activation","volume":"70","author":"Jiang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int Immunopharmacol"},{"key":"ref44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.1080\/1040841X.2024.2349556","article-title":"Ureaplasma infections: update on epidemiology, antimicrobial resistance, and pathogenesis","volume":"51","author":"Liu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Crit Rev Microbiol"},{"key":"ref45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1007\/s00203-024-04204-z","article-title":"Chinese advances in understanding and managing genitourinary tract infections caused by Mycoplasma genitalium, mycoplasma hominis, and Ureaplasma urealyticum","volume":"207","author":"Qiu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Arch Microbiol"},{"key":"ref46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1835","DOI":"10.53738\/REVMED.2023.19.845.1835","article-title":"Ureaplasma urealyticum, Ureaplasma parvum, and Mycoplasma hominis: commensals or pathogens?","volume":"19","author":"Stavart","year":"2023","journal-title":"Rev Med Suisse"},{"key":"ref47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"S29","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiab067","article-title":"Etiology and diagnosis of pelvic inflammatory disease: looking beyond gonorrhea and Chlamydia","volume":"224","author":"Mitchell","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Infect Dis"},{"key":"ref48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"226","DOI":"10.1038\/nrmicro.2017.169","article-title":"Neisseria gonorrhoeae host adaptation and pathogenesis","volume":"16","author":"Quillin","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat Rev Microbiol"},{"key":"ref49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"793","DOI":"10.1016\/j.idc.2013.08.004","article-title":"Pelvic inflammatory disease: current concepts in pathogenesis, diagnosis and treatment","volume":"27","author":"Mitchell","year":"2013","journal-title":"Infect Dis Clin N Am"},{"key":"ref50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"293","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(81)91909-7","article-title":"Serological evidence for the role of Bacteroides fragilis and enterobacteriaceae in the pathogenesis of acute pelvic inflammatory disease","volume":"1","author":"Paavonen","year":"1981","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/138.1.74","article-title":"Quantitative determination of the serum antibody response to the capsular polysaccharide of Bacteroides fragilis subspecies fragilis in women with pelvic inflammatory disease","volume":"138","author":"Kasper","year":"1978","journal-title":"J Infect Dis"},{"key":"ref52","first-page":"124","article-title":"Microbiologic considerations in the treatment of serious pelvic infections in women","volume":"33","author":"Venezio","year":"1988","journal-title":"J Reprod Med"},{"key":"ref53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"593","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.00008-07","article-title":"Bacteroides: the good, the bad, and the nitty-gritty","volume":"20","author":"Wexler","year":"2007","journal-title":"Clin Microbiol Rev"},{"key":"ref54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"S39","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiab031","article-title":"Pelvic inflammatory disease due to Neisseria gonorrhoeae and Chlamydia trachomatis: immune evasion mechanisms and pathogenic disease pathways","volume":"224","author":"Darville","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Infect Dis"},{"key":"ref55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"774","DOI":"10.1086\/314919","article-title":"Antibody response to the chlamydial heat-shock protein 60 in an experimental model of chronic pelvic inflammatory disease in monkeys (Macaca nemestrina)","volume":"180","author":"Peeling","year":"1999","journal-title":"J Infect Dis"},{"key":"ref56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"656","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jix545","article-title":"Impact of the Levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine system on the progression of Chlamydia trachomatis infection to pelvic inflammatory disease in a baboon model","volume":"217","author":"Eastman","year":"2018","journal-title":"J Infect Dis"},{"key":"ref57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.05619-11","article-title":"Persistent Chlamydia trachomatis infection of HeLa cells mediates apoptosis resistance through a Chlamydia protease-like activity factor-independent mechanism and induces high mobility group box 1 release","volume":"80","author":"R\u00f6del","year":"2012","journal-title":"Infect Immun"},{"key":"ref58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.3109\/14647273.2010.513893","article-title":"Impact of Chlamydia trachomatis in the reproductive setting: British fertility society guidelines for practice","volume":"13","author":"Akande","year":"2010","journal-title":"Hum Fertil (Camb)"},{"key":"ref59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"467","DOI":"10.1007\/s12192-010-0171-4","article-title":"Immunopathogenic consequences of Chlamydia trachomatis 60 kDa heat shock protein expression in the female reproductive tract","volume":"15","author":"Linhares","year":"2010","journal-title":"Cell Stress Chaperones"},{"key":"ref60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"311","DOI":"10.1136\/sti.61.5.311","article-title":"Chlamydial pelvic infection in cats: a model for the study of human pelvic inflammatory disease","volume":"61","author":"Kane","year":"1985","journal-title":"Genitourin Med"},{"key":"ref61","first-page":"1291","article-title":"Influence of the estrous cycle on the development of upper genital tract pathology as a result of chlamydial infection in the guinea pig model of pelvic inflammatory disease","volume":"142","author":"Rank","year":"1993","journal-title":"Am J Pathol"},{"key":"ref62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"805","DOI":"10.1128\/iai.30.3.805-813.1980","article-title":"Properties of a hemolysin produced by group B streptococci","volume":"30","author":"Marchlewicz","year":"1980","journal-title":"Infect Immun"},{"key":"ref63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1386","DOI":"10.7150\/ijms.87433","article-title":"Pen Yan Jing tablets alleviates pelvic inflammatory disease by inhibiting Akt\/NF-\u03baB pathway","volume":"20","author":"Tang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int J Med Sci"},{"key":"ref64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jep.2017.06.034","article-title":"Anti-inflammatory effect of man-pen-Fang, a Chinese herbal compound, on chronic pelvic inflammation in rats","volume":"208","author":"Zhang","year":"2017","journal-title":"J Ethnopharmacol"},{"key":"ref65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpag.2005.01.007","article-title":"Beta hemolytic streptococcus group f causing pelvic inflammatory disease in a 14-year-old girl","volume":"18","author":"Algren","year":"2005","journal-title":"J Pediatr Adolesc Gynecol"},{"key":"ref66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"112","DOI":"10.1038\/nrmicro2711","article-title":"Candida albicans morphogenesis and host defence: discriminating invasion from colonization","volume":"10","author":"Gow","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nat Rev Microbiol"},{"key":"ref67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"568","DOI":"10.1258\/095646202760159710","article-title":"Pelvic inflammatory disease in the People's Republic of China: aetiology and management","volume":"13","author":"Hong","year":"2002","journal-title":"Int J STD AIDS"},{"key":"ref68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"eadi3363","DOI":"10.1126\/scitranslmed.adi3363","article-title":"Zinc prevents vaginal candidiasis by inhibiting expression of an inflammatory fungal protein","volume":"15","author":"Roselletti","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sci Transl Med"},{"key":"ref69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e1300","DOI":"10.1002\/iid3.1300","article-title":"Modified Hongteng Baijiang decoction enema improves sequelae of pelvic inflammatory disease by regulating the LIF\/JAK2\/STAT3 pathway and gut microbiota","volume":"12","author":"Ji","year":"2024","journal-title":"Immun Inflamm Dis"},{"key":"ref70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2339","DOI":"10.4268\/cjcmm20161227","article-title":"Effect of Fuke Qianjin tablets on pharmacokinetics of azithromycin in rats with chronic pelvic inflammatory disease","volume":"41","author":"Li","year":"2016","journal-title":"Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi"},{"key":"ref71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1034","DOI":"10.1177\/1934578X221111034","article-title":"Action mechanism of Zhuang medicine Jin-mu granules against chronic pelvic inflammatory disease explored using comprehensive network pharmacology and metabolomics","volume":"17","author":"Wang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat Prod Commun"},{"key":"ref72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1186\/s13020-018-0217-6","article-title":"Metabonomic study of the protective effect of Fukeqianjin formula on multi-pathogen induced pelvic inflammatory disease in rats","volume":"13","author":"Zhang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Chin Med"},{"key":"ref73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"894149","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2022.894149","article-title":"Kangfuxiaoyanshuan alleviates uterine inflammation and adhesion via inhibiting NF-\u03baB p65 and TGF-\u03b2\/MMP-2 signaling pathway in pelvic inflammatory disease rats","volume":"13","author":"Fan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front Pharmacol"},{"key":"ref74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1155\/2019\/9585727","article-title":"The anti-inflammatory effect of feiyangchangweiyan capsule and its main components on pelvic inflammatory disease in rats via the regulation of the NF-\u03baB and BAX\/BCL-2 pathway","volume":"2019","author":"Li","year":"2019","journal-title":"Evid Based Complement Alternat Med"},{"key":"ref75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"113405","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jep.2020.113405","article-title":"Anti-inflammatory effect of traditional Chinese medicine preparation Penyanling on pelvic inflammatory disease","volume":"266","author":"Zou","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Ethnopharmacol"},{"key":"ref76","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1653","DOI":"10.3892\/etm.2016.3142","article-title":"Gas chromatography-mass spectrometric method-based urine metabolomic profile of rats with pelvic inflammatory disease","volume":"11","author":"Zou","year":"2016","journal-title":"Exp Ther Med"},{"key":"ref77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1418","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopha.2018.07.137","article-title":"Ozone therapy ameliorates inflammation and endometrial injury in rats with pelvic inflammatory disease","volume":"107","author":"Wei","year":"2018","journal-title":"Biomed Pharmacother"},{"key":"ref78","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1086\/431365","article-title":"Significant reduction in inflammatory response in the macaque model of chlamydial pelvic inflammatory disease with azithromycin treatment","volume":"192","author":"Patton","year":"2005","journal-title":"J Infect Dis"},{"key":"ref79","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.4314\/ajtcam.v9i3.1","article-title":"The anti-inflammatory and anti-nociceptive activities of Patrinia villosa and its mechanism on the proinflammatory cytokines of rats with pelvic inflammation","volume":"9","author":"Zheng","year":"2012","journal-title":"Afr J Tradit Complement Altern Med"},{"key":"ref80","first-page":"430","article-title":"Experimental treatment of chronic pelvic inflammatory disease in rats with acupoint injection of Astragalus parenteral solution","volume":"35","author":"Cai","year":"2006","journal-title":"Zhejiang Da Xue Xue Bao Yi Xue Ban"},{"key":"ref81","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"105802","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jff.2023.105802","article-title":"Flavonoids from Smilax china L. rhizome improve chronic pelvic inflammatory disease by promoting macrophage reprogramming via the NLRP3 inflammasome-autophagy pathway","volume":"109","author":"Yun","year":"2023","journal-title":"J Funct Foods"},{"key":"ref82","first-page":"145","article-title":"Pharmaceutical screening of the effective fraction from Smilax for treatment of chronic pelvic inflammatory disease","volume":"33","author":"Yun","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Southern Med. Univ."},{"key":"ref83","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"11747","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jafc.0c05102","article-title":"Aldose reductase inhibitor engeletin suppresses pelvic inflammatory disease by blocking the phospholipase C\/protein kinase C-dependent\/NF-\u03baB and MAPK cascades","volume":"68","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Agric Food Chem"},{"key":"ref84","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"194","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jff.2016.11.015","article-title":"Protection of flavonoids from Smilax china L. rhizome on phenol mucilage-induced pelvic inflammation in rats by attenuating inflammation and fibrosis","volume":"28","author":"Song","year":"2017","journal-title":"J Funct Foods"},{"key":"ref85","first-page":"1361","article-title":"Effect of acupoint injection by Astragalus injection on local SIgA and pathomorphology changes in rats with chronic pelvic inflammatory disease","volume":"31","author":"Cai","year":"2006","journal-title":"Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi"},{"key":"ref86","first-page":"236","article-title":"Effect of Smilax china bioactive fraction on tumor necrosis factor-\u03b1 and interleukin-4 contents in uterine tissue of rats with chronic pelvic inflammatory disease","volume":"34","author":"Luo","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nan Fang Yi Ke Da Xue Xue Bao"},{"key":"ref87","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"413","DOI":"10.4142\/jvs.2016.17.3.413","article-title":"Establishment of hydrochloric acid\/lipopolysaccharide-induced pelvic inflammatory disease model","volume":"17","author":"Oh","year":"2016","journal-title":"J Vet Sci"},{"key":"ref88","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"9094","DOI":"10.12659\/MSM.916070","article-title":"Comparison of the analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects of Xiaoyuningkun decoction with Cynanchum Paniculatum and Fukeqianjin in a mouse model of pelvic inflammatory disease","volume":"25","author":"Tang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Med Sci Monit"},{"key":"ref89","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"729","DOI":"10.7150\/ijms.19616","article-title":"Anti-inflammatory effects of the natural compounds cortex Phellodendri and Humulus japonicus on pelvic inflammatory disease in mice","volume":"14","author":"Oh","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int J Med Sci"},{"key":"ref90","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"118992","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jep.2024.118992","article-title":"YiMu-QingGong san alleviates lipopolysaccharide-induced endometritis in mice via inhibiting inflammation and oxidative stress through regulating macrophage polarization","volume":"337","author":"Yu","year":"2025","journal-title":"J Ethnopharmacol"},{"key":"ref91","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1590\/S1413-86702005000100003","article-title":"Spontaneous inflammatory pelvic disease in adult non-castrated female rats treated with estrogen","volume":"9","author":"Ramos","year":"2005","journal-title":"Braz J Infect Dis"},{"key":"ref92","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"812587","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2022.812587","article-title":"Integrated metabolomics and network pharmacology study on the mechanism of Kangfuxiaoyan suppository for treating chronic pelvic inflammatory disease","volume":"13","author":"Zhang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front Pharmacol"},{"key":"ref93","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1016\/0010-7824(87)90063-1","article-title":"Intrauterine devices and pelvic inflammatory disease: recent developments","volume":"36","author":"Grimes","year":"1987","journal-title":"Contraception"},{"key":"ref94","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.3109\/07853899309164163","article-title":"Intrauterine contraceptive device and pelvic inflammatory disease","volume":"25","author":"Toivonen","year":"1993","journal-title":"Ann Med"},{"key":"ref95","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"785","DOI":"10.1016\/0140-6736(92)91904-M","article-title":"Intrauterine devices and pelvic inflammatory disease: an international perspective","volume":"339","author":"Farley","year":"1992","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref96","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e13476","DOI":"10.1111\/aji.13476","article-title":"Intrauterine devices as an exposure risk for urinary tract infections: a scoping review","volume":"86","author":"Lo","year":"2021","journal-title":"Am J Reprod Immunol"},{"key":"ref97","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"414","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gofs.2018.03.002","article-title":"Intrauterine device and pelvic inflammatory disease: myth or reality?","volume":"46","author":"Straub","year":"2018","journal-title":"Gynecol Obstet Fertil Senol"},{"key":"ref98","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"119066","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jep.2024.119066","article-title":"New idea of Fuke Qianjin capsule in treating sequelae of pelvic inflammatory disease: anti-inflammatory in the early stage and reparative in the later stage","volume":"338","author":"Xu","year":"2025","journal-title":"J Ethnopharmacol"},{"key":"ref99","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"158","DOI":"10.36468\/pharmaceutical-sciences.spl.754","article-title":"Effects of Xiaoyuningkun decoction on fibrosis and Lysyl oxidase-like 2 expression in rats with sequelae of pelvic inflammatory disease","volume":"85","author":"Xie","year":"2023","journal-title":"Indian J Pharm Sci"},{"key":"ref100","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"103720","DOI":"10.1016\/j.micpath.2019.103720","article-title":"Protective effects of polydatin on LPS-induced endometritis in mice","volume":"137","author":"Li","year":"2019","journal-title":"Microb Pathog"}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Veterinary Science"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fvets.2026.1843100\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,1]],"date-time":"2026-05-01T11:27:10Z","timestamp":1777634830000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fvets.2026.1843100\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,1]]},"references-count":100,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fvets.2026.1843100"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fvets.2026.1843100","relation":{},"ISSN":["2297-1769"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2297-1769","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,1]]},"article-number":"1843100"}}