{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,4]],"date-time":"2026-09-04T06:12:39Z","timestamp":1788502359631,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":48,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,4]],"date-time":"2026-09-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1788480000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Vet. Sci."],"abstract":"<jats:p>\n                    <jats:italic>Salmonella<\/jats:italic>\n                    remains an important pathogen in swine production due to its impact on animal health and its role in foodborne illnesses. However, routine surveillance in pigs relies largely on fecal sampling, which can be labor-intensive and difficult to scale across large production systems. This study aimed to develop and evaluate a novel approach for monitoring\n                    <jats:italic>Salmonella<\/jats:italic>\n                    in finisher pigs using oral fluids in combination with sequential enrichment, culture, and polymerase chain reaction (PCR). A cross-sectional study was conducted at three commercial finisher sites in Iowa between February and May 2025, where paired oral fluid and pooled fecal samples were collected from 51 pens. The samples were processed using sequential enrichment followed by bacteriological culture and multiplex polymerase chain reaction to detect and characterize\n                    <jats:italic>Salmonella<\/jats:italic>\n                    . Direct PCR testing of raw samples did not detect\n                    <jats:italic>Salmonella<\/jats:italic>\n                    in either sample type. However, tests performed after enrichment successfully detected the pathogen in both samples, demonstrating the importance of enrichment for molecular detection in oral fluids. The culture of enriched oral fluids yielded viable isolates suitable for serotyping, and molecular testing enabled the rapid identification of the two serotypes most relevant to swine and public health (Typhimurium and I 4,[5],12:i:-).\n                    <jats:italic>Salmonella<\/jats:italic>\n                    was detected in 86.3% of the pens using at least one method, and oral fluids demonstrated diagnostic performance comparable to pooled fecal samples. These findings establish that oral fluids, when combined with sequential enrichment, are a practical and scalable sample type for monitoring\n                    <jats:italic>Salmonella<\/jats:italic>\n                    in finisher pigs.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2026.1876360","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,4]],"date-time":"2026-09-04T05:29:38Z","timestamp":1788499778000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Oral fluids for detection and characterization of Salmonella in commercial finisher pigs"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Mariah","family":"Post","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Diagnostic and Production Animal Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Iowa State University","place":["Ames, IA, United States"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fernando L.","family":"Leite","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Diagnostic and Production Animal Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Iowa State University","place":["Ames, IA, United States"]},{"name":"Boehringer Ingelheim Animal Health USA Inc.","place":["Duluth, GA, United States"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Phillip","family":"Gauger","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Diagnostic and Production Animal Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Iowa State University","place":["Ames, IA, United States"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nubia","family":"Macedo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Diagnostic and Production Animal Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Iowa State University","place":["Ames, IA, United States"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mariamawit Z.","family":"Mohammed","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Diagnostic and Production Animal Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Iowa State University","place":["Ames, IA, United States"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Thinh Tran Pham","family":"Tien","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Diagnostic and Production Animal Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Iowa State University","place":["Ames, IA, United States"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Isadora M. P.","family":"Coelho","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Diagnostic and Production Animal Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Iowa State University","place":["Ames, IA, United States"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Isadora F.","family":"Machado","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Diagnostic and Production Animal Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Iowa State University","place":["Ames, IA, United States"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Eduardo F.","family":"Costa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Epidemiology, Bioinformatics and Animal Models, Wageningen Bioveterinary Research","place":["Lelystad, Netherlands"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gustavo S.","family":"Silva","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Diagnostic and Production Animal Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Iowa State University","place":["Ames, IA, United States"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref1","volume-title":"Diseases of Swine","author":"Bearson","year":"2025"},{"key":"ref2","volume-title":"Antigenic Formulae of the","author":"Grimont","year":"2007"},{"key":"ref3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"284","DOI":"10.1080\/21553769.2015.1051243","article-title":"Salmonella: a review on pathogenesis, epidemiology and antibiotic resistance","volume":"8","author":"Eng","year":"2015","journal-title":"Front Life Sci"},{"key":"ref4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"373","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-animal-013120-043304","article-title":"Salmonella in swine: prevalence, multidrug resistance, and vaccination strategies","volume":"10","author":"Bearson","year":"2022","journal-title":"Annu Rev Anim Biosci"},{"key":"ref5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2007.12.017","article-title":"Non-typhoidal Salmonella infections in pigs","volume":"130","author":"Boyen","year":"2008","journal-title":"Vet Microbiol"},{"key":"ref6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"13893","DOI":"10.1186\/s12864-022-08458-z","article-title":"Relationship and distribution of Salmonella enterica serovar I 4,[5],12:i:- strain sequences","volume":"12","author":"Trachsel","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"key":"ref7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"818","DOI":"10.1177\/1040638719883843","article-title":"Emergence of Salmonella enterica serovar 4,[5],12:i:- as the primary serovar identified from swine clinical samples and development of a multiplex real-time PCR for improved Salmonella serovar-level identification","volume":"31","author":"Naberhaus","year":"2019","journal-title":"J Vet Diagn Invest"},{"key":"ref8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"109641","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens12101267","article-title":"Salmonella epidemiology and control in modern swine production systems","volume":"278","author":"Soliani","year":"2023","journal-title":"Vet Microbiol"},{"key":"ref9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e06406","DOI":"10.2903\/j.efsa.2021.6406","article-title":"The European Union one health 2019 zoonoses report","volume":"19","year":"2019","journal-title":"EFSA J"},{"key":"ref10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"803","DOI":"10.3390\/vetsci12090803","article-title":"Prevalence and risk factors for Salmonella spp. on pig carcass, before and after chilling, in Brazil","volume":"12","author":"Brasileiro","year":"2025","journal-title":"Vet Sci"},{"key":"ref11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"571","DOI":"10.1089\/fpd.2004.1.202","article-title":"Salmonella epidemiology in pork production systems","volume":"17","author":"Davies","year":"2020","journal-title":"Foodborne Pathog Dis"},{"key":"ref12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.3390\/microbiolres16040074","article-title":"Frequency, resistance patterns, and serotypes of Salmonella identified in pigs","volume":"16","author":"Barrientos-Villegas","year":"2025","journal-title":"Microbiol Res"},{"key":"ref13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1368","DOI":"10.2527\/jas.2010-3598","article-title":"Effects of Salmonella infection on growth performance in pigs","volume":"90","author":"Walsh","year":"2012","journal-title":"J Anim Sci"},{"key":"ref14","author":"Schwartz","year":"2021"},{"key":"ref15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"899","DOI":"10.4315\/0362-028X.JFP-12-404","article-title":"Role of slaughtering in Salmonella spreading and control","volume":"76","author":"Arg\u00fcello","year":"2013","journal-title":"J Food Prot"},{"key":"ref16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1734","DOI":"10.1017\/S0950268809002702","article-title":"Estimation of sample sizes for pooled fecal sampling","volume":"137","author":"Arnold","year":"2009","journal-title":"Epidemiol Infect"},{"key":"ref17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"365","DOI":"10.1098\/rsif.2005.0057","article-title":"A modelling approach to estimate the sensitivity of pooled faecal samples for isolation of Salmonella in pigs","volume":"2","author":"Arnold","year":"2005","journal-title":"J R Soc Interface"},{"key":"ref18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1017\/S1466252310000174","article-title":"Toward a better understanding of pig behavior and welfare","volume":"12","author":"Kittawornrat","year":"2010","journal-title":"Anim Health Res Rev"},{"key":"ref19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1017\/S1466252310000010","article-title":"The development of oral fluid-based diagnostics","volume":"11","author":"Prickett","year":"2010","journal-title":"Anim Health Res Rev"},{"key":"ref20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"766","DOI":"10.3390\/ani14050766","article-title":"Pen-based Swine oral Fluid samples","volume":"14","author":"Tarasiuk","year":"2024","journal-title":"Animals"},{"key":"ref21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1186\/s40813-025-00432-x","article-title":"Postmortem tongue fluids for PRRSV and IAV monitoring","volume":"11","author":"Osemeke","year":"2025","journal-title":"Porcine Health Manag"},{"key":"ref22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2017.02.004","article-title":"Sampling guidelines for oral fluid surveys","volume":"209","author":"Rotolo","year":"2017","journal-title":"Vet Microbiol"},{"key":"ref23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"292","DOI":"10.1016\/j.prevetmed.2011.11.008","article-title":"Efficient surveillance using oral fluids","volume":"104","author":"Ramirez","year":"2012","journal-title":"Prev"},{"key":"ref24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/jcm.03051-20","article-title":"Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae surveillance","volume":"59","author":"Clavijo","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Clin Microbiol"},{"key":"ref25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"106950","DOI":"10.1016\/j.prevetmed.2026.106950","article-title":"Comparison of oral fluids and pooled pen fecal samples for detection of Lawsonia intracellularis by qPCR using Bayesian latent class analysis","volume":"255","author":"Cezar","year":"2026","journal-title":"Prev Vet Med"},{"key":"ref26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1186\/s40813-019-0136-7","article-title":"Detection of Salmonella-specific antibody in swine oral fluids","volume":"5","author":"Atkinson","year":"2019","journal-title":"Porcine Health Manag"},{"key":"ref27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"489","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2019.00489","article-title":"Correlation of anti-Salmonella antibodies between serum and saliva samples collected from finisher pigs","volume":"6","author":"De Lucia","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front Vet Sci"},{"key":"ref28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1007\/s00265-020-02916-y","article-title":"Effective use of the McNemar test","volume":"74","author":"Pembury Smith","year":"2020","journal-title":"Behav Ecol Sociobiol"},{"key":"ref29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2857","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-21255-7","article-title":"Vaccination against Lawsonia intracellularis","volume":"8","author":"Leite","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"key":"ref30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"127540","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2025.127540","article-title":"Oral live bivalent Salmonella vaccine","volume":"62","author":"Leite","year":"2025","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"620","DOI":"10.1177\/104063870802000514","article-title":"Comparison of culture methods for Salmonella isolation","volume":"20","author":"Love","year":"2008","journal-title":"J Vet Diagn Invest"},{"key":"ref32","volume-title":"R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing","year":"2024"},{"key":"ref33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.18637\/jss.v067.i01","article-title":"Fitting linear mixed-effects models using lme4","volume":"67","author":"Bates","year":"2015","journal-title":"J Stat Softw"},{"key":"ref34","volume-title":"Veterinary Epidemiologic Research","author":"Dohoo","year":"2009"},{"key":"ref35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3326","DOI":"10.3758\/s13428-022-01950-0","article-title":"Better to be in agreement than in bad company: a critical analysis of many kappa-like tests","volume":"55","author":"Silveira","year":"2023","journal-title":"Behav Res Methods"},{"key":"ref36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.1177\/0095798420930932","article-title":"Latent class analysis","volume":"46","author":"Weller","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Black Psychol"},{"key":"ref37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e63","DOI":"10.1097\/CCM.0000000000004710","article-title":"Practitioner\u2019s guide to latent class analysis","volume":"49","author":"Sinha","year":"2021","journal-title":"Crit Care Med"},{"key":"ref38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1186\/s41512-022-00125-x","article-title":"Bayesian latent class analysis","volume":"6","author":"MacLean","year":"2022","journal-title":"Diagn Progn Res"},{"key":"ref39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.18637\/jss.v071.i09","article-title":"Runjags: an R package providing interface utilities, model templates, parallel computing methods and additional distributions for MCMC models in JAGS","volume":"71","author":"Denwood","year":"2016","journal-title":"J Stat Softw"},{"key":"ref40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"106872","DOI":"10.1016\/j.prevetmed.2026.106872","article-title":"Evaluation of the transmission dynamics of Lawsonia intracellularis in swine","volume":"252","author":"Leite","year":"2026","journal-title":"Prev Vet Med"},{"key":"ref41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"164","DOI":"10.1186\/s12917-020-02378-4","article-title":"Molecular detection in oral fluids","volume":"16","author":"Plut","year":"2020","journal-title":"BMC Vet Res"},{"key":"ref42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e01859","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.01859-18","article-title":"High-resolution identification of multiple Salmonella serovars in a single sample by using CRISPR-SeroSeq","volume":"84","author":"Thompson","year":"2018","journal-title":"Appl Environ Microbiol"},{"key":"ref43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.1177\/104063870601800401","article-title":"PCR detection in pooled samples","volume":"18","author":"Singer","year":"2006","journal-title":"J Vet Diagn Invest"},{"key":"ref44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.4315\/0362-028X-69.7.1717","article-title":"Sampling methods for detecting Salmonella","volume":"75","author":"O\u2019Connor","year":"2006","journal-title":"Prev Vet Med"},{"key":"ref45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"412","DOI":"10.1177\/104063870001200504","article-title":"Effect of fecal sample weight on Salmonella detection","volume":"12","author":"Funk","year":"2000","journal-title":"J Vet Diagn Invest"},{"key":"ref46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"655","DOI":"10.1177\/10406387211021","article-title":"Oral fluids for pathogen surveillance","volume":"33","author":"Schott","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Vet Diagn Invest"},{"key":"ref47","first-page":"129","article-title":"Salmonella serovars in swine production","volume":"66","author":"Atkinson","year":"2019","journal-title":"Zoonoses Public Health"},{"key":"ref48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1972","DOI":"10.1186\/s40813-020-00168-w","article-title":"Oral fluid surveillance in swine production","volume":"67","author":"Henao-D\u00edaz","year":"2020","journal-title":"Transbound Emerg Dis"}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Veterinary Science"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fvets.2026.1876360\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,4]],"date-time":"2026-09-04T05:29:39Z","timestamp":1788499779000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fvets.2026.1876360\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,4]]},"references-count":48,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fvets.2026.1876360"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fvets.2026.1876360","relation":{},"ISSN":["2297-1769"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2297-1769","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,4]]},"article-number":"1876360"}}