{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,27]],"date-time":"2026-08-27T16:22:12Z","timestamp":1787847732718,"version":"build-2784847793"},"reference-count":46,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,27]],"date-time":"2026-08-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1787788800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000277","name":"Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, UK Government","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000277","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Vet. Sci."],"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Introduction<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      The European badger (\n                      <jats:italic>Meles meles<\/jats:italic>\n                      ) is wildlife host for Mycobacterium bovis (\n                      <jats:italic>bovine tuberculosis<\/jats:italic>\n                      ) in the UK and several European countries, complicating efforts to control the disease in livestock. Badger vaccination using the injectable BadgerBCG vaccine has been available in England since 2010 as a non-lethal tool to reduce TB transmission in badger populations and reduce risks to cattle. Despite long-standing interest, national deployment has historically been limited, and questions remain about operational feasibility.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Here we provide a comprehensive overview of 16 years of badger vaccination delivery in England, summarizing national deployment trends, geographical expansion, recorded welfare-related observations, operational efficiency in government led programmes, and the effects of culling history on trapping success.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>From 2010 to 25 there were 84,085 trap nights, resulting in 25,692 vaccine doses administered to wild badgers in England. Visual welfare assessments by lay vaccinators recorded &amp;gt;99% of badgers as normal for demeanor, respiration, condition, and movement. Minor injuries such as abrasions to the forelimbs were recorded in 4.2% of badgers with serious injuries extremely rare (0.03% of captures) and veterinary callouts required in only 0.04% of events. Trapping efficiency varied by month and trap location and was significantly higher in unculled populations, than those where culling had recently taken place. In post-cull areas, trapping success increased steadily with time, which may suggest partial population recovery and increasing trap encounter rates.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Discussion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>These results show that badger vaccination in England has expanded substantially and can be delivered across diverse landscapes, including areas recently subject to culling. While vaccination using traps is unlikely to become a landscape-wide tool due to costs and logistical constraints, it can act as a targeted intervention in areas where badgers contribute meaningfully to disease transmission. These findings provide robust operational evidence to inform policy and support the strategic deployment of badger vaccination as part of England's evolving bTB control strategy.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2026.1901413","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,27]],"date-time":"2026-08-27T15:33:11Z","timestamp":1787844791000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Vaccinating wild badgers against bovine tuberculosis: an overview of 16 years of vaccine delivery in England"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Andrew","family":"Robertson","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs","place":["Bristol, United Kingdom"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Clare H.","family":"Benton","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Animal and Plant Health Agency, National Wildlife Management Centre","place":["Gloucestershire, United Kingdom"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1155\/2012\/236205","volume":"2012","author":"Palmer","year":"2012","journal-title":"Vet Med Int."},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1111\/tbed.12115","volume":"60","author":"Palmer","year":"2013","journal-title":"Transbound Emerg Dis."},{"key":"B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tvjl.2005.11.011","article-title":"Bovine tuberculosis infection in wild mammals in the South-West region of England: a survey of prevalence and a semi-quantitative assessment of the relative risks to cattle","volume":"173","author":"Delahay","year":"2007","journal-title":"Vet J."},{"key":"B4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"20131634","DOI":"10.1098\/rspb.2013.1634","article-title":"A restatement of the natural science evidence base relevant to the control of bovine tuberculosis in Great Britain\u2020","volume":"280","author":"Godfray","year":"2013","journal-title":"Proc R Soc B."},{"key":"B5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"14666","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-49957-6","article-title":"Assessing effects from four years of industry-led badger culling in England on the incidence of bovine tuberculosis in cattle, 2013\u20132017","volume":"9","author":"Downs","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci Rep."},{"key":"B6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4849","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-54062-4","article-title":"Difference in differences analysis evaluates the effects of the badger control policy on bovine tuberculosis in England","volume":"14","author":"Birch","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci Rep."},{"key":"B7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2664.2007.01387.x","article-title":"Trapping and vaccination of endangered Ethiopian wolves to control an outbreak of rabies","volume":"45","author":"Knobel","year":"2008","journal-title":"J Appl Ecol."},{"key":"B8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1141","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2015.01141","article-title":"Controlling of CSFV in European wild boar using oral vaccination: a review","volume":"6","author":"Rossi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Front Microbiol."},{"key":"B9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2018.00259","article-title":"Efficacy and safety of BCG vaccine for control of tuberculosis in domestic livestock and wildlife","volume":"5","author":"Buddle","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front Vet Sci"},{"key":"B10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1136\/inp.f1186","article-title":"Veterinary guidance on the practical use of the BadgerBCG tuberculosis vaccine","volume":"35","author":"Brown","year":"2013","journal-title":"In Pract."},{"key":"B11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"106464","DOI":"10.1016\/j.prevetmed.2025.106464","article-title":"Can badger vaccination contribute to bovine TB control? 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