{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,23]],"date-time":"2026-09-23T14:05:35Z","timestamp":1790172335516,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":29,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,23]],"date-time":"2026-09-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790121600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Vet. Sci."],"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Introduction<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) control still depends largely on inactivated vaccines; however, improving vaccine efficacy without reformulating existing vaccines remains an important practical challenge.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>We assessed oral levamisole as an independently administered adjunct alongside, but separately from, a conventional intramuscular bivalent FMD vaccine in mice and FMD-seronegative swine. Serotype-specific immune responses were assessed using structural protein (SP) ELISA and virus-neutralization (VN) assays. IgA-associated responses were examined in mouse serum and saliva and in swine serum, while cytokine-related gene transcription was profiled in porcine peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Murine post-challenge outcomes and porcine safety were also evaluated.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      Oral levamisole increased antibody and neutralizing responses against FMD virus (FMDV) serotypes O and A in both species. In mice, adjunct treatment improved post-challenge survival (5\/5 [100%] with vaccine + levamisole vs. 2\/5 [40%] with vaccine alone; log-rank\n                      <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u202f=\u202f0.004), reduced post-challenge body weight loss, and increased IgA-associated responses.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Discussion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>These findings support oral levamisole as a practical route-decoupled adjunct for enhancing FMD vaccine responsiveness without requiring modification of the injectable vaccine formulation.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2026.1918567","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,23]],"date-time":"2026-09-23T13:25:18Z","timestamp":1790169918000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Oral levamisole as a route-decoupled adjunct to intramuscular foot-and-mouth disease vaccination: a two-species evaluation"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Hyeong Won","family":"Kim","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Foot-and-Mouth Disease Vaccine Research, Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency","place":["Gimcheon-si, Gyeongsangbuk-do, Republic of Korea"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"So Hui","family":"Park","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Foot-and-Mouth Disease Vaccine Research, Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency","place":["Gimcheon-si, Gyeongsangbuk-do, Republic of Korea"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mi-Kyeong","family":"Ko","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Foot-and-Mouth Disease Vaccine Research, Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency","place":["Gimcheon-si, Gyeongsangbuk-do, Republic of Korea"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Seokwon","family":"Shin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Foot-and-Mouth Disease Vaccine Research, Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency","place":["Gimcheon-si, Gyeongsangbuk-do, Republic of Korea"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jong-Hyeon","family":"Park","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Foot-and-Mouth Disease Vaccine Research, Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency","place":["Gimcheon-si, Gyeongsangbuk-do, Republic of Korea"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Min Ja","family":"Lee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Foot-and-Mouth Disease Vaccine Research, Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency","place":["Gimcheon-si, Gyeongsangbuk-do, Republic of Korea"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1016\/j.prevetmed.2013.07.013","article-title":"The economic impacts of foot and mouth disease\u2014what are they, how big are they and where do they occur?","volume":"112","author":"Knight-Jones","year":"2013","journal-title":"Prev Vet Med"},{"key":"ref2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"465","DOI":"10.1128\/cmr.17.2.465-493.2004","article-title":"Foot-and-mouth disease","volume":"17","author":"Grubman","year":"2004","journal-title":"Clin Microbiol 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