{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,9]],"date-time":"2026-03-09T06:15:37Z","timestamp":1773036937222,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":82,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,9]],"date-time":"2026-03-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1773014400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Immunol."],"abstract":"<jats:p>Recent breakthroughs in molecular vaccinology have defined a new generation of vaccines that integrate synthetic mRNA, self-amplifying RNA, and nanomaterial-based platforms. These fourth-generation vaccines offer exceptional adaptability, rapid design, and strong immunogenicity, as demonstrated during the COVID-19 pandemic. Their potential now extends to neglected tropical diseases (NTDs), where conventional vaccine strategies have failed to deliver durable protection. This review traces the evolution from whole-pathogen to precision molecular vaccines, highlighting the mechanisms, delivery systems, and translational advances that underpin the GenIV paradigm. Using leishmaniasis as a case study, we discuss how these technologies can bridge innovation and equity through technology transfer, regional manufacturing, and global collaboration. By integrating scientific, ethical, and implementation perspectives, this work outlines how next-generation vaccines can transform both epidemic preparedness and the equitable control of endemic diseases.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2026.1756570","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,9]],"date-time":"2026-03-09T05:22:53Z","timestamp":1773033773000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["GenIV vaccines: bridging innovation to equity in neglected tropical diseases"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"Marta","family":"Ara\u00fajo","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Life and Health Sciences Research Institute (ICVS), School of Medicine from University of Minho","place":["Braga, Portugal"]},{"name":"ICVS\/3B\u2019s \u2013 PT Government Associate Laboratory","place":["Braga\/Guimar\u00e3es, Portugal"]}]},{"given":"Dhiraj","family":"Gurjar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Centre for Cell Science","place":["Pune, India"]}]},{"given":"Nicolas","family":"Grandchamp","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"GEG-Tech","place":["Paris, France"]}]},{"given":"Bhaskar","family":"Saha","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"JSPS Government Homeopathic Medical College","place":["Ramanthapur\/Hyderabad, Telangana, India"]}]},{"given":"Ricardo","family":"Silvestre","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Life and Health Sciences Research Institute (ICVS), School of Medicine from University of Minho","place":["Braga, Portugal"]},{"name":"ICVS\/3B\u2019s \u2013 PT Government Associate Laboratory","place":["Braga\/Guimar\u00e3es, Portugal"]}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/PNAS.1400472111","article-title":"History of vaccination","volume":"111","author":"Plotkin","year":"2014","journal-title":"Proc Natl Acad Sci U.S.A"},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/PNAS.1819612116","article-title":"On the mechanisms of conjugate vaccines","volume":"116","author":"Rappuoli","year":"2019","journal-title":"Proc Natl Acad Sci U.S.A"},{"key":"B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/35021239","article-title":"Vaccines against intracellular infections requiring cellular immunity","volume":"406","author":"Seder","year":"2000","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"B4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/d41586-021-02483-w","article-title":"The tangled history of mRNA vaccines","volume":"597","author":"Dolgin","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"B5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nrd.2017.243","article-title":"mRNA vaccines - a new era in vaccinology","volume":"17","author":"Pardi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat Rev Drug Discov"},{"key":"B6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-020-2798-3","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 vaccines in development","volume":"586","author":"Krammer","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"B7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/S11596-025-00112-5","article-title":"mRNA vaccines in cancer immunotherapy: recent advances, clinical translation, and future perspectives","author":"Pati","year":"2025","journal-title":"Curr Med Sci"},{"key":"B8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-med-051214-024241","article-title":"New vaccines for the world\u2019s poorest people","volume":"67","author":"Hotez","year":"2016","journal-title":"Annu Rev Med"},{"key":"B9","article-title":"Ending the neglect to attain the sustainable development goals : A road map for neglected tropical diseases","volume":"196","year":"2021"},{"key":"B10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/21645515.2019.1629254","article-title":"\u2018Running the Gauntlet\u2019: Formidable challenges in advancing neglected tropical diseases vaccines from development through licensure, and a \u2018Call to Action\u2019","volume":"15","author":"Bottazzi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Hum Vac. Immunother"},{"key":"B11","unstructured":""},{"key":"B12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2021.639801","article-title":"Revival of leishmanization and leishmanin","volume":"11","author":"Pacheco-Fernandez","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front Cell Infect Microbiol"},{"key":"B13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"619","DOI":"10.1586\/14760584.2016.1131127","article-title":"Development of a schistosomiasis vaccine","volume":"15","author":"Molehin","year":"2016","journal-title":"Expert Rev Vaccines"},{"key":"B14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/BS.SEDA.2016.07.011","article-title":"Vaccines","volume":"38","author":"Damer","year":"2016","journal-title":"Side. Eff. Drugs Annu"},{"key":"B15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2011.02.096","article-title":"A clinical trial to evaluate the safety and immunogenicity of the LEISH-F1+MPL-SE vaccine for use in the prevention of visceral leishmaniasis","volume":"29","author":"Chakravarty","year":"2011","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"B16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/cti.2015.6","article-title":"From mouse to man: safety, immunogenicity and efficacy of a candidate leishmaniasis vaccine LEISH-F3+GLA-SE","volume":"4","author":"Coler","year":"2015","journal-title":"Clin Transl Immunol"},{"key":"B17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2012.00005","article-title":"CD8+ T cells in leishmania infections: friends or foes","volume":"3","author":"St\u00e4ger","year":"2012","journal-title":"Front Immunol"},{"key":"B18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/VACCINES13030316","article-title":"The Sm14+GLA-SE Recombinant Vaccine Against Schistosoma mansoni and S. haematobium in Adults and School Children: Phase II Clinical Trials in West Africa","volume":"13","author":"Ly","year":"2025","journal-title":"Vaccines (Basel)"},{"key":"B19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.00127-17","article-title":"Genetic adjuvantation of a cell-based therapeutic vaccine for amelioration of chagasic cardiomyopathy","volume":"85","author":"Konduri","year":"2017","journal-title":"Infect Immun"},{"key":"B20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijid.2024.107014","article-title":"Next-generation vaccines for tropical infectious diseases","volume":"143","author":"Allen","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int J Infect Dis"},{"key":"B21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100633","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jvacx.2025.100633","article-title":"Exploring a promising vaccine candidate against Leishmania major: Insights from Gp63, LACK, TSA, LmSTI1and KMP11 antigens in BALB\/c mice","volume":"24","author":"Rashidi","year":"2025","journal-title":"Vaccine X"},{"key":"B22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2023.1213193","article-title":"A non-replicative antibiotic resistance-free DNA vaccine delivered by the intranasal route protects against canine leishmaniasis","volume":"14","author":"Alonso","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front Immunol"},{"key":"B23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/1751-7915.70053","article-title":"New insights for the development of efficient DNA vaccines","volume":"17","author":"Berger","year":"2024","journal-title":"Microb Biotechnol"},{"key":"B24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2024.e34927","article-title":"Viral vector- and virus-like particle-based vaccines against infectious diseases: A minireview","volume":"10","author":"Henr\u00edquez","year":"2024","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"B25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jir842","article-title":"Therapeutic vaccination with recombinant adenovirus reduces splenic parasite burden in experimental visceral leishmaniasis","volume":"205","author":"Maroof","year":"2012","journal-title":"J Infect Dis"},{"key":"B26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0005527","article-title":"A third generation vaccine for human visceral leishmaniasis and post kala azar dermal leishmaniasis: First-in-human trial of ChAd63-KH","volume":"11","author":"Osman","year":"2017","journal-title":"PloS Negl Trop Dis"},{"key":"B27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ymthe.2021.03.020","article-title":"Safety and immunogenicity of ChAd63-KH vaccine in post-kala-azar dermal leishmaniasis patients in Sudan","volume":"29","author":"Younis","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mol Ther"},{"key":"B28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.omtm.2024.101310","article-title":"A randomized, double-blind phase 2b trial to evaluate efficacy of ChAd63-KH for treatment of post kala-azar dermal leishmaniasis","volume":"32","author":"Younis","year":"2024","journal-title":"Mol Ther Methods Clin Dev"},{"key":"B29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"334","DOI":"10.3390\/ph16030334","article-title":"Recent advances in the development of adenovirus-vectored vaccines for parasitic infections","volume":"16","author":"Koger-Pease","year":"2023","journal-title":"Pharmaceuticals"},{"key":"B30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-024-08508-4","article-title":"RNA neoantigen vaccines prime long-lived CD8+ T cells in pancreatic cancer","volume":"639","author":"Sethna","year":"2025","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"B31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"102577","DOI":"10.1016\/j.parint.2022.102577","article-title":"An alphavirus-derived self-amplifying mRNA encoding PpSP15-LmSTI1 fusion protein for the design of a vaccine against leishmaniasis","volume":"89","author":"Savar","year":"2022","journal-title":"Parasitol Int"},{"key":"B32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nri2868","article-title":"Vaccine delivery: A matter of size, geometry, kinetics and molecular patterns","volume":"10","author":"Bachmann","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nat Rev Immunol"},{"key":"B33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"112538","DOI":"10.1016\/J.INTIMP.2024.112538","article-title":"PLGA nanoparticle-delivered Leishmania antigen and TLR agonists as a therapeutic vaccine against cutaneous leishmaniasis in BALB\/c mice","volume":"138","author":"Katebi","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int Immunopharmacol"},{"key":"B34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/cmdc.201500227","article-title":"Lipopeptide nanoparticles: development of vaccines against hookworm parasite","volume":"10","author":"Fuaad","year":"2015","journal-title":"ChemMedChem"},{"key":"B35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100715","DOI":"10.1016\/j.curtheres.2023.100715","article-title":"Nanoparticles as potent agents for treatment of schistosoma infections: A systematic review","volume":"99","author":"Shakib","year":"2023","journal-title":"Curr Ther Res"},{"key":"B36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2206333119","article-title":"Assessment of a quadrivalent nucleoside-modified mRNA vaccine that protects against group 2 influenza viruses","volume":"119","author":"McMahon","year":"2022","journal-title":"Proc Natl Acad Sci U.S.A"},{"key":"B37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/21645515.2025.2450045","article-title":"The mRNA-1647 vaccine: A promising step toward the prevention of cytomegalovirus infection (CMV)","volume":"21","author":"Akingbola","year":"2025","journal-title":"Hum Vac. Immunother"},{"key":"B38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(22)00764-2","article-title":"The safety and immunogenicity of two Zika virus mRNA vaccine candidates in healthy flavivirus baseline seropositive and seronegative adults: the results of two randomised, placebo-controlled, dose-ranging, phase 1 clinical trials","volume":"23","author":"Essink","year":"2023","journal-title":"Lancet Infect Dis"},{"key":"B39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-025-58963-4","article-title":"Recent perspectives in clinical development of malaria vaccines","volume":"16","author":"Feehan","year":"2025","journal-title":"Nat Commun"},{"key":"B40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/s41541-025-01089-x","article-title":"iDC-targeting PfCSP mRNA vaccine confers superior protection against Plasmodium compared to conventional mRNA","volume":"10","author":"Yanik","year":"2025","journal-title":"NPJ Vaccines"},{"key":"B41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/scitranslmed.ady6831","article-title":"Vaccination with mRNA-encoded membrane-anchored HIV envelope trimers elicited tier 2 neutralizing antibodies in a phase 1 clinical trial","volume":"17","author":"Parks","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sci Transl Med"},{"key":"B42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/scitranslmed.adw0721","article-title":"Vaccination with an mRNA-encoded membrane-bound HIV envelope trimer induces neutralizing antibodies in animal models","volume":"17","author":"Ramezani-Rad","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sci Transl Med"},{"key":"B43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"105599","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ebiom.2025.105599","article-title":"An LNP-mRNA vaccine modulates innate cell trafficking and promotes polyfunctional Th1 CD4+ T cell responses to enhance BCG-induced protective immunity against Mycobacterium tuberculosis","volume":"113","author":"Lukeman","year":"2025","journal-title":"EBioMedicine"},{"key":"B44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1186\/s40794-024-00231-2","article-title":"The role of antibody-dependent enhancement in dengue vaccination","volume":"10","author":"Aynekulu Mersha","year":"2024","journal-title":"Trop Dis Travel Med Vaccines"},{"key":"B45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2024.1475886","article-title":"Development of nucleic acid-based vaccines against dengue and other mosquito-borne flaviviruses: the past, present, and future","volume":"15","author":"Bello","year":"2025","journal-title":"Front Immunol"},{"key":"B46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2025.1614805","article-title":"Overcoming dengue vaccine challenges through next-generation virus-like particle immunization strategies","volume":"15","author":"Parra-Gonz\u00e1lez","year":"2025","journal-title":"Front Cell Infect Microbiol"},{"key":"B47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virs.2022.07.003","article-title":"A multiple-target mRNA-LNP vaccine induces protective immunity against experimental multi-serotype DENV in mice","volume":"37","author":"He","year":"2022","journal-title":"Virol Sin"},{"key":"B48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2025.127216","article-title":"Enhanced immunogenicity of an mRNA vaccine against dengue virus serotype 2 with modified key residue","volume":"57","author":"Kumari","year":"2025","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"B49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2025.07.21.665855","DOI":"10.1101\/2025.07.21.665855","article-title":"mRNA-LNP Vaccines Encoding for Dengue Optimized prM\/ENV Proteins Induce Protective Immunity without ADE","author":"LaMontia-Hankin","year":"2025","journal-title":"bioRxiv"},{"key":"B50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/jvi.02482-20","article-title":"A Dengue Virus Serotype 1 mRNA-LNP Vaccine Elicits Protective Immune Responses","volume":"95","author":"Wollner","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Virol"},{"key":"B51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.omtm.2020.07.013","article-title":"Modified mRNA-LNP Vaccines Confer Protection against Experimental DENV-2 Infection in Mice","volume":"18","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mol Ther Methods Clin Dev"},{"key":"B52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1083\/JCB.202110137","article-title":"Endosomal escape of delivered mRNA from endosomal recycling tubules visualized at the nanoscale","volume":"221","author":"Paramasivam","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Cell Biol"},{"key":"B53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-023-06800-3","article-title":"N 1-methylpseudouridylation of mRNA causes +1 ribosomal frameshifting","volume":"625","author":"Mulroney","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"B54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.3390\/VACCINES9020097","article-title":"An update on self-amplifying mRNA vaccine development","volume":"9","author":"Blakney","year":"2021","journal-title":"Vaccines (Basel)"},{"key":"B55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ymthe.2017.11.017","article-title":"Self-Amplifying RNA Vaccines Give Equivalent Protection against Influenza to mRNA Vaccines but at Much Lower Doses","volume":"26","author":"Vogel","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mol Ther"},{"key":"B56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.1601877","article-title":"Induction of an IFN-mediated antiviral response by a self-amplifying RNA vaccine: implications for vaccine design","volume":"198","author":"Pepini","year":"2017","journal-title":"J Immunol"},{"key":"B57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.58411","article-title":"Electron tomography visualization of HIV-1 fusion with target cells using fusion inhibitors to trap the pre-hairpin intermediate","volume":"9","author":"Ladinsky","year":"2020","journal-title":"Elife"},{"key":"B58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"325","DOI":"10.3390\/bioengineering10030325","article-title":"Challenges and opportunities for extracellular vesicles in clinical oncology therapy","volume":"10","author":"Lu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Bioengineering"},{"key":"B59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fitd.2022.844039","article-title":"Leveraging mRNA platform technology to accelerate development of vaccines for some emerging and neglected tropical diseases through local vaccine production","volume":"3","author":"Sparrow","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front Trop Dis"},{"key":"B60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"106585","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijsu.2022.106585","article-title":"Africa is going to develop their own health capabilities for future challenges \u2013 Correspondence","volume":"99","author":"Saied","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int J Surg"},{"key":"B61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines10091385","article-title":"Vaccines against emerging and neglected infectious diseases: an overview","volume":"10","author":"Vuitika","year":"2022","journal-title":"Vaccines"},{"key":"B62","article-title":"Immune response to Leishmania infection","volume":"119","author":"Awasthi","year":"2004","journal-title":"Indian J Med Res"},{"key":"B63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2024.1332939","article-title":"The next-generation DNA vaccine platforms and delivery systems: advances, challenges and prospects","volume":"15","author":"Lu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Front Immunol"},{"key":"B64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"152415","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbrc.2025.152415","article-title":"Transforming drug and vaccine delivery for equitable access in global health","volume":"779","author":"Yang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Biochem Biophys Res Commun"},{"key":"B65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/medethics-2020-106887","article-title":"Love thy neighbour? Allocating vaccines in a world of competing obligations","volume":"47","author":"Ferguson","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Med Ethics"},{"key":"B66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjgh-2023-011881","article-title":"Vaccine access, equity and justice: COVID-19 vaccines and vaccination","volume":"8","author":"Privor-Dumm","year":"2023","journal-title":"BMJ Global Health"},{"key":"B67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(21)00306-8","article-title":"Challenges in ensuring global access to COVID-19 vaccines: production, affordability, allocation, and deployment","volume":"397","author":"Wouters","year":"2021","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"B68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"127377","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2025.127377","article-title":"What are the key features of an equitable global vaccine strategy for the next pandemic? A qualitative study of pandemic control experts","volume":"61","author":"Fawole","year":"2025","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"B69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/21645515.2021.2020529","article-title":"Capacity building for vaccine manufacturing across developing countries: the way forward","volume":"18","author":"Kumraj","year":"2022","journal-title":"Hum Vac. Immunother"},{"key":"B70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pgph.0002834","article-title":"The role of global health partnerships in vaccine equity: A scoping review","volume":"4","author":"Nunes","year":"2024","journal-title":"PloS Global Public Health"},{"key":"B71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines12080891","article-title":"Lessons from the COVID-19 pandemic: promoting vaccination and public health resilience, a narrative review","volume":"12","author":"Pennisi","year":"2024","journal-title":"Vaccines (Basel)"},{"key":"B72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s12913-023-09237-6","article-title":"Ethical considerations of the vaccine development process and vaccination: a scoping review","volume":"23","author":"Jalilian","year":"2023","journal-title":"BMC Health Serv Res"},{"key":"B73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-022-01713-6","article-title":"Misinformation: susceptibility, spread, and interventions to immunize the public","volume":"28","author":"Van Der Linden","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat Med"},{"key":"B74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41562-022-01431-6","article-title":"A systematic literature review to clarify the concept of vaccine hesitancy","volume":"6","author":"Bussink-Voorend","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat Hum Behav"},{"key":"B75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/jamahealthforum.2021.0434","article-title":"Vaccine hesitancy is a scapegoat for structural racism","volume":"2","author":"Corbie-Smith","year":"2021","journal-title":"JAMA Health Forum"},{"key":"B76","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms24032700","article-title":"A comprehensive review of mRNA vaccines","volume":"24","author":"Gote","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int J Mol Sci"},{"key":"B77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0098858819892745","article-title":"Informed consent to vaccination: theoretical, legal, and empirical insights","volume":"45","author":"Reiss","year":"2019","journal-title":"Am J Law Med"},{"key":"B78","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMsa0806477","article-title":"Vaccine refusal, mandatory immunization, and the risks of vaccine-preventable diseases","volume":"360","author":"Omer","year":"2009","journal-title":"New Engl J Med"},{"key":"B79","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/bjbs.2025.14557","article-title":"A Systematic Review of Clinical Trials Using mRNA Vaccines for Infectious Diseases other than COVID-19","volume":"82","author":"Sofroniou","year":"2025","journal-title":"Br J Biomed Sci"},{"key":"B80","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nrd2159","article-title":"Issues in the design and implementation of vaccine trials in less developed countries","volume":"5","author":"Deen","year":"2006","journal-title":"Nat Rev Drug Discov"},{"key":"B81","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actatropica.2020.105387","article-title":"Evaluation of canine leishmaniosis vaccine CaniLeish\u00ae under field conditions in native dog populations from an endemic Mediterranean area\u2013A randomized controlled trial","volume":"205","author":"Velez","year":"2020","journal-title":"Acta Trop"},{"key":"B82","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S2666-5247(23)00184-2","article-title":"First WHO\/MPP mRNA technology transfer programme meeting","volume":"4","author":"Rybicki","year":"2023","journal-title":"Lancet Microbe"}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Immunology"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fimmu.2026.1756570\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,9]],"date-time":"2026-03-09T05:22:54Z","timestamp":1773033774000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fimmu.2026.1756570\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,9]]},"references-count":82,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fimmu.2026.1756570"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fimmu.2026.1756570","relation":{},"ISSN":["1664-3224"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1664-3224","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,9]]},"article-number":"1756570"}}