{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,20]],"date-time":"2026-02-20T23:18:43Z","timestamp":1771629523016,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":44,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,18]],"date-time":"2024-04-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1713398400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Psychiatry"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The profile of executive function (EF) in adults with Schizophrenia (SCZ) and autism spectrum disorder (ASD) remains unclear. This study aims to ascertain if distinct EF patterns can be identified between each clinical condition by comparing the neuropsychological profile of adults with SCZ and ASD, for whom the differential diagnosis is still highly challenging. Forty-five individuals (15 SCZ, 15 ASD, 15 controls) matched for age, sex, education level, and handedness underwent intelligence evaluation and neuropsychological testing for working memory, inhibition, planning and set-shifting, and verbal fluency subdomains. Principal component analysis (2D-PCA) using variables representing 4 domains was employed to identify patterns in neuropsychological profiles. The ASD group had lower scores on the Digits Forward subtest compared to the SCZ group (7.2 \u00b1 2.1 vs. 9.3 \u00b1 1.9, <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic> = 0.003; Cohen\u2019s <jats:italic>d<\/jats:italic>: 1.05). ASD also performed significantly worse on the Stroop Word Test compared to the control group (77.7\u00b1 17.9 vs. 98.0 \u00b1 12.7, <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic> = 0.009; Cohen\u2019s <jats:italic>d<\/jats:italic>: 1.31). No significant differences were observed between ASD and SCZ on other EF measures. The larger contributors for the dimensions in 2D-PCA were the Digits Forward subtest and Stroop Word Test. Still, there was substantial overlap between the clinical groups. This study suggests a high degree of similarity of EF between SCZ and ASD. Through four EF measures, the discrimination of low and high-functioning EF groups spanning both diagnostic categories may help to identify the individuals who could better benefit from cognitive rehabilitation strategies.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2024.1381526","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,18]],"date-time":"2024-04-18T11:01:00Z","timestamp":1713438060000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Executive function in schizophrenia and autism in adults shares common components separating high and low performance groups"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Sofia","family":"Morais","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Ot\u00edlia C.","family":"d\u2019Almeida","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Salom\u00e9","family":"Caldeira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Sofia","family":"Meneses","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Gra\u00e7a","family":"Areias","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Vanessa","family":"Gir\u00e3o","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Catarina","family":"Bettencourt","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Daniela Jardim","family":"Pereira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Ant\u00f3nio","family":"Macedo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Miguel","family":"Castelo-Branco","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1007\/s11920-019-1048-6","article-title":"120th anniversary of the kraepelinian dichotomy of psychiatric disorders","volume":"21","author":"Rybakowski","year":"2019","journal-title":"Curr Psychiatry Rep"},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41588-019-0344-8","article-title":"Identification of common genetic risk variants for autism spectrum disorder","volume":"51","author":"Grove","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat Genet"},{"key":"B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1073","DOI":"10.1038\/s42003-021-02592-2","article-title":"Evidence of shared and distinct functional and structural brain signatures in schizophrenia and autism spectrum disorder","volume":"4","author":"Du","year":"2021","journal-title":"Commun Biol"},{"key":"B4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"384","DOI":"10.1002\/aur.2659","article-title":"Autism spectrum disorder and schizophrenia: An updated conceptual review","volume":"15","author":"Jutla","year":"2022","journal-title":"Autism Res"},{"key":"B5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1212\/01.con.0000466658.05156.54","article-title":"Executive dysfunction","volume":"21","author":"Rabinovici","year":"2015","journal-title":"Contin (Minneap Minn)"},{"key":"B6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jecp.2019.104681","article-title":"Developmental transformations in the structure of executive functions","volume":"189","author":"Hartung","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Exp Child Psychol"},{"key":"B7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.schres.2019.11.001","article-title":"Older versus middle-aged adults with schizophrenia: Executive functioning and community outcomes","volume":"216","author":"Muralidharan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Schizophr Res"},{"key":"B8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/20473869.2020.1871311","article-title":"Profiling planning skills and cognitive flexibility of adults with autism spectrum disorders: Preliminary results from an exploratory service-based study","volume":"68","author":"Di Sarro","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int J Dev Disabil"},{"key":"B9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rasd.2014.03.001","article-title":"Comparing cognitive functioning in schizophrenia and autism using WAIS-III","volume":"8","author":"de Boer","year":"2014","journal-title":"Res Autism Spectr Disord"},{"key":"B10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.schres.2013.05.013","article-title":"Commonalities in social and non-social cognitive impairments in adults with autism spectrum disorder and schizophrenia","volume":"148","author":"Eack","year":"2013","journal-title":"Schizophr Res"},{"key":"B11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10803-016-2758-9","article-title":"Asperger syndrome and schizophrenia: A comparative neuropsychological study","volume":"46","author":"Marinopoulou","year":"2016","journal-title":"J Autism Dev Disord"},{"key":"B12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00406-022-01466-w","article-title":"Neuropsychological profile of executive functions in autism spectrum disorder and schizophrenia spectrum disorders: a comparative group study in adults","volume":"273","author":"Yon-Hern\u00e1ndez","year":"2023","journal-title":"Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci"},{"key":"B13","volume-title":"Manual de diagn\u00f3stico e estat\u00edstica das Perturba\u00e7\u00f5es Mentais, (5","year":"2014"},{"key":"B14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/23279095.2017.1290636","article-title":"Preliminary validation of the Portuguese Edinburgh Handedness Inventory in an adult sample","volume":"24","author":"Esp\u00edrito-Santo","year":"2017","journal-title":"Appl Neuropsychol Adult"},{"key":"B15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1016\/0028-3932(71)90067-4","article-title":"The assessment and analysis of handedness: the Edinburgh inventory","volume":"9","author":"Oldfield","year":"1971","journal-title":"Neuropsychologia"},{"key":"B16","volume-title":"Escala de Intelig\u00eancia de Wechsler para Adultos","author":"Wechsler","year":"2008"},{"key":"B17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/schbul\/13.2.261","article-title":"The positive and negative syndrome scale (PANSS) for schizophrenia","volume":"13","author":"Kay","year":"1987","journal-title":"Schizophr Bull"},{"key":"B18","volume-title":"Autism diagnostic observation schedule-2nd edition (ADOS-2)","author":"Lord","year":"2012"},{"key":"B19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00127-011-0412-6","article-title":"The Portuguese version of the Personal and Social Performance Scale (PSP): reliability, validity, and relationship with cognitive measures in hospitalized and community schizophrenia patients","volume":"47","author":"Brissos","year":"2012","journal-title":"Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol"},{"key":"B20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1034\/j.1600-0447.2000.101004323.x","article-title":"Development, reliability and acceptability of a new version of the DSM-IV Social and Occupational Functioning Assessment Scale (SOFAS) to assess routine social functioning","volume":"101","author":"Morosini","year":"2000","journal-title":"Acta Psychiatr Scand"},{"key":"B21","volume-title":"Guidelines for ATC classification and DDD assignment 2023","year":"2022"},{"key":"B22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1192\/pb.21.4.224","article-title":"Chlorpromazine equivalents: a consensus of opinion for both clinical and research applications","volume":"21","author":"Atkins","year":"1997","journal-title":"Psychiatr Bull"},{"key":"B23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.schres.2013.06.030","article-title":"How to compare doses of different antipsychotics: a systematic review of methods","volume":"149","author":"Patel","year":"2013","journal-title":"Schizophr Res"},{"key":"B24","volume-title":"Stoop: teste de cores e palavras","author":"Fernandes","year":"2013"},{"key":"B25","volume-title":"Stroop Color and Word Test: Manual for Clinical and Experimental Uses","author":"Golden","year":"1978"},{"key":"B26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/23279095.2020.1810040","article-title":"Normative scores of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test in a sample of the adult Portuguese population","volume":"29","author":"Faustino","year":"2022","journal-title":"Appl Neuropsychol Adult"},{"key":"B27","volume-title":"Wisconsin Card Sorting Test-64 cards version professional manual","author":"Kongs","year":"2000"},{"key":"B28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/arclin\/acs115","article-title":"Trail Making Test: regression-based norms for the Portuguese population","volume":"28","author":"Cavaco","year":"2013","journal-title":"Arch Clin Neuropsychol"},{"key":"B29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2466\/pms.1958.8.3.271","article-title":"Validity of the trail making test as an indicator of organic brain damage","volume":"8","author":"Reitan","year":"1958","journal-title":"Percept Mot Skills"},{"key":"B30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0028-3932(67)90015-2","article-title":"Word fluency and brain damage","volume":"5","author":"Borkowski","year":"1967","journal-title":"Neuropsychologia"},{"key":"B31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/arclin\/act001","article-title":"Semantic fluency and phonemic fluency: regression-based norms for the Portuguese population","volume":"28","author":"Cavaco","year":"2013","journal-title":"Arch Clin Neuropsychol"},{"key":"B32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/s0924-9338(97)80200-3","article-title":"Verbal fluency in schizophrenia: the role of semantic clustering in category instance generation","volume":"12","author":"Robert","year":"1997","journal-title":"Eur Psychiatry J Assoc Eur Psychiatr"},{"key":"B33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7326\/0003-4819-147-8-200710160-00010-w1","article-title":"Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology (STROBE): explanation and elaboration","volume":"147","author":"Vandenbroucke","year":"2007","journal-title":"Ann Intern Med"},{"key":"B34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psychres.2010.03.016","article-title":"Premorbid IQ and adult schizophrenia spectrum disorder: verbal Performance subtests","volume":"178","author":"S\u00f8rensen","year":"2010","journal-title":"Psychiatry Res"},{"key":"B35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rasd.2011.09.004","article-title":"Cognitive profiles of adults with Asperger\u2019s disorder, high-functioning autism, and pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified based on the WAIS-III","volume":"6","author":"Kanai","year":"2012","journal-title":"Res Autism Spectr Disord"},{"key":"B36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2022.886588","article-title":"Are executive dysfunctions relevant for the autism-specific cognitive profile","volume":"13","author":"Hemmers","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front Psychiatry"},{"key":"B37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psychres.2018.12.088","article-title":"A meta-analysis of executive dysfunction in patients with schizophrenia: Different degree of impairment in the ecological subdomains of the Behavioural Assessment of the Dysexecutive Syndrome","volume":"272","author":"Thai","year":"2019","journal-title":"Psychiatry Res"},{"key":"B38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/mp.2017.75","article-title":"Autism spectrum disorders: A meta-analysis of executive function","volume":"23","author":"Demetriou","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mol Psychiatry"},{"key":"B39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/2040-2392-4-25","article-title":"Comparison of white matter integrity between autism spectrum disorder subjects and typically developing individuals: a meta-analysis of diffusion tensor imaging tractography studies","volume":"4","author":"Aoki","year":"2013","journal-title":"Mol Autism"},{"key":"B40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.schres.2014.06.034","article-title":"Meta-analysis of cognitive performance in drug-na\u00efve patients with schizophrenia","volume":"158","author":"Fatouros-Bergman","year":"2014","journal-title":"Schizophr Res"},{"key":"B41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1159\/000329720","article-title":"Aging in autism spectrum disorders: a mini-review","volume":"58","author":"Happ\u00e9","year":"2012","journal-title":"Gerontology"},{"key":"B42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10803-022-05547-6","article-title":"Differences in daily life executive functioning between people with autism and people with schizophrenia","volume":"53","author":"Yon-Hern\u00e1ndez","year":"2023","journal-title":"J Autism Dev Disord"},{"key":"B43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-psych-113011-143750","article-title":"Executive functions","volume":"64","author":"Diamond","year":"2013","journal-title":"Annu Rev Psychol"},{"key":"B44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"86","DOI":"10.1038\/s41386-018-0179-5","article-title":"Let\u2019s call the whole thing off: evaluating gender and sex differences in executive function","volume":"44","author":"Grissom","year":"2019","journal-title":"Neuropsychopharmacology"}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Psychiatry"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpsyt.2024.1381526\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,18]],"date-time":"2024-04-18T11:01:07Z","timestamp":1713438067000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpsyt.2024.1381526\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,18]]},"references-count":44,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fpsyt.2024.1381526"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fpsyt.2024.1381526","relation":{},"ISSN":["1664-0640"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1664-0640","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,18]]},"article-number":"1381526"}}