{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,18]],"date-time":"2026-01-18T08:46:56Z","timestamp":1768726016221,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":36,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,14]],"date-time":"2023-02-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1676332800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute (Switzerland)","award":["*bird 100% discount* will be applied to your submission  *before 15 February* 2023."],"award-info":[{"award-number":["*bird 100% discount* will be applied to your submission  *before 15 February* 2023."]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Algorithms"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The presence of bruises on fruits often indicates cell damage, which can lead to a decrease in the ability of the peel to keep oxygen away from the fruits, and as a result, oxygen breaks down cell walls and membranes damaging fruit content. When chemicals in the fruit are oxidized by enzymes such as polyphenol oxidase, the chemical reaction produces an undesirable and apparent brown color effect, among others. Early detection of bruising prevents low-quality fruit from entering the consumer market. Hereupon, the present paper aims at early identification of bruised lemon fruits using 3D-convolutional neural networks (3D-CNN) via a local spectral-spatial hyperspectral imaging technique, which takes into account adjacent image pixel information in both the frequency (wavelength) and spatial domains of a 3D-tensor hyperspectral image of input lemon fruits. A total of 70 sound lemons were picked up from orchards. First, all fruits were labeled and the hyperspectral images (wavelength range 400\u20131100 nm) were captured as belonging to the healthy (unbruised) class (class label 0). Next, bruising was applied to each lemon by freefall. Then, the hyperspectral images of all bruised samples were captured in a time gap of 8 (class label 1) and 16 h (class label 2) after bruising was induced, thus resulting in a 3-class ternary classification problem. Four well-known 3D-CNN model namely ResNet, ShuffleNet, DenseNet, and MobileNet were used to classify bruised lemons in Python. Results revealed that the highest classification accuracy (90.47%) was obtained by the ResNet model, followed by DenseNet (85.71%), ShuffleNet (80.95%) and MobileNet (73.80%); all over the test set. ResNet model had larger parameter sizes, but it was proven to be trained faster than other models with fewer number of free parameters. ShuffleNet and MobileNet were easier to train and they needed less storage, but they could not achieve a classification error as low as the other two counterparts.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/a16020113","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,15]],"date-time":"2023-02-15T01:38:18Z","timestamp":1676425098000},"page":"113","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":20,"title":["Examination of Lemon Bruising Using Different CNN-Based Classifiers and Local Spectral-Spatial Hyperspectral Imaging"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0766-8305","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Razieh","family":"Pourdarbani","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biosystems Engineering, College of Agriculture, University of Mohaghegh Ardabili, Ardabil 56199-11367, Iran"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2439-5329","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sajad","family":"Sabzi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Computer Engineering Department, Sharif University of Technology, Tehran 14588-89694, Iran"}]},{"given":"Mohsen","family":"Dehghankar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Computer Engineering Department, Sharif University of Technology, Tehran 14588-89694, Iran"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6589-850X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mohammad H.","family":"Rohban","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Computer Engineering Department, Sharif University of Technology, Tehran 14588-89694, Iran"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7486-6152","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Juan I.","family":"Arribas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Castilla-Le\u00f3n Neuroscience Institute, University of Salamanca, 37007 Salamanca, Spain"},{"name":"Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Valladolid, 47011 Valladolid, Spain"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"373","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tifs.2007.03.011","article-title":"Extending and measuring the quality of fresh-cut fruit and vegetables: A review","volume":"18","author":"Rico","year":"2007","journal-title":"Trends Food Sci. 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