{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,10]],"date-time":"2026-06-10T16:37:32Z","timestamp":1781109452637,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":50,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,17]],"date-time":"2023-05-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1684281600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Algorithms"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Residential and industrial buildings are significant consumers of energy, which can be reduced by controlling their respective Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning (HVAC) systems. Demand-based Ventilation (DCV) determines the operational times of ventilation systems that depend on indoor air quality (IAQ) conditions, including CO2 concentration changes, and the occupants\u2019 comfort requirements. The prediction of CO2 concentration changes can act as a proxy estimator of occupancy changes and provide feedback about the utility of current ventilation controls. This paper proposes a Hierarchical Model for CO2 Variation Predictions (HMCOVP) to accurately predict these variations. The proposed framework addresses two concerns in state-of-the-art implementations. First, the hierarchical structure enables fine-tuning of the produced models, facilitating their transferability to different spatial settings. Second, the formulation incorporates time dependencies, defining the relationship between different IAQ factors. Toward that goal, the HMCOVP decouples the variation prediction into two complementary steps. The first step transforms lagged versions of environmental features into image representations to predict the variations\u2019 direction. The second step combines the first step\u2019s result with environment-specific historical data to predict CO2 variations. Through the HMCOVP, these predictions, which outperformed state-of-the-art approaches, help the ventilation systems in their decision-making processes, reducing energy consumption and carbon-based emissions.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/a16050256","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,18]],"date-time":"2023-05-18T06:32:58Z","timestamp":1684391578000},"page":"256","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":13,"title":["Hierarchical Modelling for CO2 Variation Prediction for HVAC System Operation"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2723-4662","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ibrahim","family":"Shaer","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Western University, 1151 Richmond St., London, ON N6A 3K7, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2887-0350","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Abdallah","family":"Shami","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Western University, 1151 Richmond St., London, ON N6A 3K7, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"The Rockefeller Foundation and Deutsche Bank Group (2020, May 16). 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