{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,16]],"date-time":"2025-12-16T12:00:12Z","timestamp":1765886412820,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":48,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,27]],"date-time":"2024-07-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1722038400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Algorithms"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The Discrete Cosine Transform (DCT) is fundamental to high-capacity data hiding schemes due to its ability to condense signals into a few significant coefficients while leaving many high-frequency coefficients relatively insignificant. These high-frequency coefficients are often replaced with secret data, allowing for the embedding of many secret bits while maintaining acceptable stego signal quality. However, because high-frequency components still affect the stego signal\u2019s quality, preserving their structure is beneficial. This work introduces a method that maintains the structure of high-frequency DCT components during embedding through polynomial modeling. A scaled-down version of the secret signal is added to or subtracted from the polynomial-generated signal to minimize the error between the cover signal and the polynomial-generated signal. As a result, the stego image retains a structure similar to the original cover image. Experimental results demonstrate that this scheme improves the quality and security of the stego image compared to current methods. Notably, the technique\u2019s robustness is confirmed by its resistance to detection by deep learning methods, as a Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) could not distinguish between the cover and stego images.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/a17080328","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,29]],"date-time":"2024-07-29T09:50:05Z","timestamp":1722246605000},"page":"328","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["High-Fidelity Steganography: A Covert Parity Bit Model-Based Approach"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4003-1592","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tamer","family":"Rabie","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Computing & Informatics, University of Sharjah, Sharjah P.O. Box 27272, United Arab Emirates"}]},{"given":"Mohammed","family":"Baziyad","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Institute of Sciences & Engineering (RISE), University of Sharjah, Sharjah P.O. Box 27272, United Arab Emirates"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5546-939X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ibrahim","family":"Kamel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Computing & Informatics, University of Sharjah, Sharjah P.O. Box 27272, United Arab Emirates"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41943","DOI":"10.1007\/s11042-023-14844-w","article-title":"Video steganography: Recent advances and challenges","volume":"82","author":"Kunhoth","year":"2023","journal-title":"Multimed. Tools Appl."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"302","DOI":"10.1109\/COMST.2023.3309051","article-title":"Quantum cryptography in 5g networks: A comprehensive overview","volume":"26","author":"Mehic","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Surv. Tutorials"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2291","DOI":"10.1007\/s11277-023-10183-z","article-title":"A detailed review based on secure data transmission using cryptography and steganography","volume":"129","author":"Varghese","year":"2023","journal-title":"Wirel. Pers. Commun."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Subramani, S., and Svn, S.K. (2023). Review of security methods based on classical cryptography and quantum cryptography. Cybern. Syst., 1\u201319.","DOI":"10.1080\/01969722.2023.2166261"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8295","DOI":"10.1007\/s11042-017-4727-5","article-title":"Maximizing embedding capacity and stego quality: Curve-fitting in the transform domain","volume":"77","author":"Rabie","year":"2018","journal-title":"Multimed. Tools Appl."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gutub, A. (2024). Regulating Kashida Arabic steganography to improve security and capacity performance. Multimed. Tools Appl., 1\u201334.","DOI":"10.1007\/s11042-024-18946-x"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, T.H., and Yan, J.Y. (2023). Enhanced steganography for high dynamic range images with improved security and capacity. Appl. Sci., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/app13158865"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huo, L., Chen, R., Wei, J., and Huang, L. (2024). A High-Capacity and High-Security Image Steganography Network Based on Chaotic Mapping and Generative Adversarial Networks. Appl. Sci., 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/app14031225"},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Suhail, M., Sadoun, B., and Obaidat, M.S. (2006). Digital Watermarking and Steganography, Wiley."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"463","DOI":"10.1049\/ipr2.12646","article-title":"Contribution of neural networks in image steganography, watermarking and encryption","volume":"17","author":"Rafidison","year":"2023","journal-title":"IET Image Process."},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"6335","article-title":"A comparative study of steganography using watermarking and modifications pixels versus least significant bit","volume":"13","author":"Caballero","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Electr. Comput. Eng. IJECE"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127546","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neucom.2024.127546","article-title":"FDNet: Imperceptible backdoor attacks via frequency domain steganography and negative sampling","volume":"583","author":"Dong","year":"2024","journal-title":"Neurocomputing"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20357","DOI":"10.1007\/s11042-023-16330-9","article-title":"A robust and imperceptible n-Ary based image steganography in DCT domain for secure communication","volume":"83","author":"Kaur","year":"2024","journal-title":"Multimed. Tools Appl."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lan, Y., Shang, F., Yang, J., Kang, X., and Li, E. (2023, January 7\u201314). Robust image steganography: Hiding messages in frequency coefficients. Proceedings of the AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence, Washington, DC, USA.","DOI":"10.1609\/aaai.v37i12.26746"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhou, W., Wang, Z., and Chen, Z. (2021, January 14\u201317). Image super-resolution quality assessment: Structural fidelity versus statistical naturalness. Proceedings of the 2021 13th International Conference on Quality of Multimedia Experience (QoMEX), Virtual Event.","DOI":"10.1109\/QoMEX51781.2021.9465479"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8627","DOI":"10.1007\/s11042-016-3501-4","article-title":"Toward optimal embedding capacity for transform domain steganography: A quad-tree adaptive-region approach","volume":"76","author":"Rabie","year":"2017","journal-title":"Multimed. Tools Appl."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"787","DOI":"10.1049\/ip-vis:20045047","article-title":"High-capacity steganography using a shared colour palette","volume":"152","author":"Brisbane","year":"2005","journal-title":"IEE Proc. Vis. Image Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5939","DOI":"10.1007\/s11042-015-2557-x","article-title":"On the embedding limits of the discrete cosine transform","volume":"75","author":"Rabie","year":"2016","journal-title":"Multimed. Tools Appl."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"063001","DOI":"10.1117\/1.JEI.26.6.063001","article-title":"Visual fidelity without sacrificing capacity: An adaptive Laplacian pyramid approach to information hiding","volume":"26","author":"Rabie","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Electron. Imaging"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"288","DOI":"10.1049\/ip-vis:20000341","article-title":"High capacity image steganographic model","volume":"147","author":"Lee","year":"2000","journal-title":"IEE Proc. Vis. Image Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rabie, T., Baziyad, M., and Kamel, I. (2019, January 16\u201318). High Payload Steganography: Surface-Fitting The Transform Domain. Proceedings of the International Conference on Communications, Signal Processing, and their Applications (ICCSPA), Sharjah, United Arab Emirates.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCSPA.2019.8713731"},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"103043","article-title":"Secure high payload steganography: A model-based approach","volume":"63","author":"Rabie","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Inf. Secur. Appl."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Milosav, P., Milosavljevi\u0107, M., and Banjac, Z. (2023). Steganographic Method in Selected Areas of the Stego-Carrier in the Spatial Domain. Symmetry, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/sym15051015"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1016\/j.image.2018.03.012","article-title":"Image steganography in spatial domain: A survey","volume":"65","author":"Hussain","year":"2018","journal-title":"Signal Process. Image Commun."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14183","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-023-41303-1","article-title":"A Huffman code LSB based image steganography technique using multi-level encryption and achromatic component of an image","volume":"13","author":"Rahman","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Al-Chaab, W., Abduljabbar, Z.A., Abood, E.W., Nyangaresi, V.O., Mohammed, H.M., and Ma, J. (2023). Secure and low-complexity medical image exchange based on compressive sensing and lsb audio steganography. Informatica, 47.","DOI":"10.31449\/inf.v47i6.4628"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sondas, A., and Erturk, N.B. (2024). Dynamic data hiding capacity enhancement for the Hybrid Near Maximum Histogram image steganography based on Multi-Pixel-Pair approach. Multimed. Tools Appl., 1\u201317.","DOI":"10.1007\/s11042-024-19059-1"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1508","DOI":"10.18280\/mmep.100502","article-title":"Enhancing Data Hiding Methods for Improved Cyber Security Through Histogram Shifting Direction Optimization","volume":"10","author":"Fatman","year":"2023","journal-title":"Math. Model. Eng. Probl."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3561","DOI":"10.1007\/s11042-022-13393-y","article-title":"Quantization selection based on characteristic of cover image for PVD Steganography to optimize imperceptibility and capacity","volume":"82","author":"Andono","year":"2023","journal-title":"Multimed. Tools Appl."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21967","DOI":"10.1007\/s11042-023-16268-y","article-title":"Two-dimensional modified pixel value differencing (2 D-MPVD) image steganography with error control and security using stream encryption","volume":"83","author":"Broumandnia","year":"2024","journal-title":"Multimed. Tools Appl."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34629","DOI":"10.1007\/s11042-023-17113-y","article-title":"An improved hiding information by modifying selected DWT coefficients in video steganography","volume":"83","author":"Ernawan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Multimed. Tools Appl."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109847","DOI":"10.1016\/j.asoc.2022.109847","article-title":"Comparative study of metaheuristic optimization algorithms for image steganography based on discrete Fourier transform domain","volume":"132","author":"Melman","year":"2023","journal-title":"Appl. Soft Comput."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19323","DOI":"10.1007\/s11042-022-14166-3","article-title":"Developing an adaptive DCT-based steganography method using a genetic algorithm","volume":"82","author":"Sabeti","year":"2023","journal-title":"Multimed. Tools Appl."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1049\/ipr2.12938","article-title":"High performance image steganography integrating IWT and Hamming code within secret sharing","volume":"18","author":"Saeidi","year":"2024","journal-title":"IET Image Process."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lin, S., and Huang, X. (2011, January 18\u201319). Advanced Research on Computer Education, Simulation and Modeling. Proceedings of the Conference Proceedings CESM, Wuhan, China.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-21802-6"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13279","DOI":"10.1007\/s11042-017-4947-8","article-title":"A modified DWT-based image steganography technique","volume":"77","author":"Kumar","year":"2018","journal-title":"Multimed. Tools Appl."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kavitha, S., Varuna, S., and Ramya, R. (2016, January 19). A comparative analysis on linear regression and support vector regression. Proceedings of the 2016 Online International Conference on Green Engineering and Technologies (IC-GET), Coimbatore, India.","DOI":"10.1109\/GET.2016.7916627"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Savithri, G., Mane, S., Banu, J.S. (2017, January 9\u201312). Parallel Implementation of RSA 2D-DCT Steganography and Chaotic 2D-DCT Steganography. Proceedings of the International Conference on Computer Vision and Image Processing, Roorkee, India.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-981-10-2104-6_53"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13493","DOI":"10.1007\/s11042-016-3722-6","article-title":"A new adaptive image steganography scheme based on DCT and chaotic map","volume":"76","author":"Saidi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Multimed. Tools Appl."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neucom.2018.06.075","article-title":"Comprehensive survey of image steganography: Techniques, Evaluations, and trends in future research","volume":"335","author":"Kadhim","year":"2019","journal-title":"Neurocomputing"},{"key":"ref_41","first-page":"6473","article-title":"High-Capacity Steganography: A Global-Adaptive-Region Discrete Cosine Transform Approach","volume":"75","author":"Rabie","year":"2016","journal-title":"Multimed. Tools Appl."},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"Sallee, P. (2003, January 20\u201322). Model-based steganography. Proceedings of the International Workshop on Digital Watermarking, Seoul, Republic of Korea."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"B\u00f6hme, R., and Westfeld, A. (2004, January 13\u201315). Breaking Cauchy model-based JPEG steganography with first order statistics. Proceedings of the European Symposium on Research in Computer Security, Sophia Antipolis, France.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-540-30108-0_8"},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"Chen, C., and Shi, Y.Q. (2008, January 18\u201321). JPEG image steganalysis utilizing both intrablock and interblock correlations. Proceedings of the 2008 IEEE International Symposium on Circuits and Systems, Seattle, WA, USA."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1049\/iet-ipr.2009.0316","article-title":"Improving histogram-based reversible data hiding by interleaving predictions","volume":"4","author":"Yang","year":"2010","journal-title":"IET Image Process."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1007\/s11042-016-4253-x","article-title":"Information hiding in edges: A high capacity information hiding technique using hybrid edge detection","volume":"77","author":"Parah","year":"2016","journal-title":"Multimed. Tools Appl."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5861","DOI":"10.1007\/s11042-014-1894-5","article-title":"Reversible data hiding scheme based on exploiting modification direction with two steganographic images","volume":"74","author":"Qin","year":"2015","journal-title":"Multimed. Tools Appl."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1016\/j.displa.2016.12.004","article-title":"A High Payload Steganographic Algorithm Based on Edge Detection","volume":"46","author":"Bai","year":"2017","journal-title":"Displays"}],"container-title":["Algorithms"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4893\/17\/8\/328\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T15:24:58Z","timestamp":1760109898000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4893\/17\/8\/328"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,27]]},"references-count":48,"journal-issue":{"issue":"8","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,8]]}},"alternative-id":["a17080328"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/a17080328","relation":{},"ISSN":["1999-4893"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1999-4893"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,27]]}}}