{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,11]],"date-time":"2026-05-11T01:53:30Z","timestamp":1778464410913,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":54,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,26]],"date-time":"2025-01-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1737849600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"California Governor\u2019s Office of Emergency Services (CalOES)","award":["A211006635"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["A211006635"]}]},{"name":"California Governor\u2019s Office of Emergency Services (CalOES)","award":["2120683"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2120683"]}]},{"name":"California Governor\u2019s Office of Emergency Services (CalOES)","award":["2120684"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2120684"]}]},{"name":"California Governor\u2019s Office of Emergency Services (CalOES)","award":["2120692"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2120692"]}]},{"name":"California Governor\u2019s Office of Emergency Services (CalOES)","award":["#58-0204-9-165"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["#58-0204-9-165"]}]},{"name":"Structural Engineering Department at UC San Diego","award":["A211006635"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["A211006635"]}]},{"name":"Structural Engineering Department at UC San Diego","award":["2120683"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2120683"]}]},{"name":"Structural Engineering Department at UC San Diego","award":["2120684"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2120684"]}]},{"name":"Structural Engineering Department at UC San Diego","award":["2120692"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2120692"]}]},{"name":"Structural Engineering Department at UC San Diego","award":["#58-0204-9-165"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["#58-0204-9-165"]}]},{"name":"National Science Foundation","award":["A211006635"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["A211006635"]}]},{"name":"National Science Foundation","award":["2120683"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2120683"]}]},{"name":"National Science Foundation","award":["2120684"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2120684"]}]},{"name":"National Science Foundation","award":["2120692"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2120692"]}]},{"name":"National Science Foundation","award":["#58-0204-9-165"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["#58-0204-9-165"]}]},{"name":"National Institute of Standards and Technology","award":["A211006635"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["A211006635"]}]},{"name":"National Institute of Standards and Technology","award":["2120683"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2120683"]}]},{"name":"National Institute of Standards and Technology","award":["2120684"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2120684"]}]},{"name":"National Institute of Standards and Technology","award":["2120692"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2120692"]}]},{"name":"National Institute of Standards and Technology","award":["#58-0204-9-165"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["#58-0204-9-165"]}]},{"name":"TallWood Design Institute","award":["A211006635"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["A211006635"]}]},{"name":"TallWood Design Institute","award":["2120683"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2120683"]}]},{"name":"TallWood Design Institute","award":["2120684"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2120684"]}]},{"name":"TallWood Design Institute","award":["2120692"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2120692"]}]},{"name":"TallWood Design Institute","award":["#58-0204-9-165"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["#58-0204-9-165"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Algorithms"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) vision-based sensing has become an emerging technology for structural health monitoring (SHM) and post-disaster damage assessment of civil infrastructure. This article proposes a framework for monitoring structural displacement under earthquakes by reprojecting image points obtained courtesy of UAV-captured videos to the 3-D world space based on the world-to-image point correspondences. To identify optimal features in the UAV imagery, geo-reference targets with various patterns were installed on a test building specimen, which was then subjected to earthquake shaking. A feature point tracking-based algorithm for square checkerboard patterns and a Hough Transform-based algorithm for concentric circular patterns are developed to ensure reliable detection and tracking of image features. Photogrammetry techniques are applied to reconstruct the 3-D world points and extract structural displacements. The proposed methodology is validated by monitoring the displacements of a full-scale 6-story mass timber building during a series of shake table tests. Reasonable accuracy is achieved in that the overall root-mean-square errors of the tracking results are at the millimeter level compared to ground truth measurements from analog sensors. Insights on optimal features for monitoring structural dynamic response are discussed based on statistical analysis of the error characteristics for the various reference target patterns used to track the structural displacements.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/a18020066","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,27]],"date-time":"2025-01-27T11:38:49Z","timestamp":1737977929000},"page":"66","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["Application Framework and Optimal Features for UAV-Based Earthquake-Induced Structural Displacement Monitoring"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-5879-8875","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ruipu","family":"Ji","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Structural Engineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2826-9696","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Shokrullah","family":"Sorosh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Structural Engineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Eric","family":"Lo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Qualcomm Institute, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Tanner J.","family":"Norton","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Qualcomm Institute, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"John W.","family":"Driscoll","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Qualcomm Institute, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Falko","family":"Kuester","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Structural Engineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4547-531X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Andre R.","family":"Barbosa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Civil and Construction Engineering, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Barbara G.","family":"Simpson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9109-7896","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tara C.","family":"Hutchinson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Structural Engineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103036","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jobe.2021.103036","article-title":"Combining Computer Vision with Semantic Reasoning for On-Site Safety Management in Construction","volume":"42","author":"Wu","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Build. Eng."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105129","DOI":"10.1016\/j.autcon.2023.105129","article-title":"Computer Vision-Based Safety Risk Computing and Visualization on Construction Sites","volume":"156","author":"Hou","year":"2023","journal-title":"Autom. Constr."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"04024027","DOI":"10.1061\/JCEMD4.COENG-14388","article-title":"Vision-Based Detection Method for Construction Site Monitoring by Integrating Data Augmentation and Semisupervised Learning","volume":"150","author":"Shi","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Constr. Eng. Manag."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, X., Wogen, B.E., Liu, X., Iturburu, L., Salmeron, M., Dyke, S.J., Poston, R., and Ramirez, J.A. (2023). Machine-Aided Bridge Deck Crack Condition State Assessment Using Artificial Intelligence. Sensors, 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/s23094192"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110","DOI":"10.1007\/s00138-024-01591-7","article-title":"Active Perception Based on Deep Reinforcement Learning for Autonomous Robotic Damage Inspection","volume":"35","author":"Tang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Mach. Vis. Appl."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2117","DOI":"10.1002\/tal.2117","article-title":"Intelligent Crack Identification Method for High-Rise Buildings Aided by Synthetic Environments","volume":"33","author":"Yao","year":"2024","journal-title":"Struct. Des. Tall Spec. Build."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, Z., Xue, J., Wang, N., Bai, W., and Mo, Y. (2023). Intelligent Damage Assessment for Post-Earthquake Buildings Using Computer Vision and Augmented Reality. Sustainability, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/su15065591"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103906","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijdrr.2023.103906","article-title":"Deep Learning and Stereo Vision Based Detection of Post-Earthquake Fire Geolocation for Smart Cities within the Scope of Disaster Management: \u0130stanbul Case","volume":"96","author":"Kustu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Disaster Risk Reduct."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109909","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jobe.2024.109909","article-title":"Computer Vision-Based Post-Earthquake Inspections for Building Safety Assessment","volume":"94","author":"Cheng","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Build. Eng."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"142","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2014.10.039","article-title":"A Preliminary Study on the Response of Steel Structures Using Surveillance Camera Image with Vision-Based Method during the Great East Japan Earthquake","volume":"62","author":"Cheng","year":"2015","journal-title":"Measurement"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1109\/TIM.2003.821481","article-title":"Monitoring Global Earthquake-Induced Demands Using Vision-Based Sensors","volume":"53","author":"Hutchinson","year":"2004","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"04020045","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)CP.1943-5487.0000928","article-title":"Methodology and Validation of UAV-Based Video Analysis Approach for Tracking Earthquake-Induced Building Displacements","volume":"34","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Comput. Civ. Eng."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2862","DOI":"10.1002\/stc.2862","article-title":"Monitoring the Earthquake Response of Full-Scale Structures Using UAV Vision-Based Techniques","volume":"29","author":"Wang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Struct. Control Health Monit."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Cao, P., Ji, R., Ma, Z., Sorosh, S., Lo, E., Norton, T., Driscoll, J., Wang, X., Hutchinson, T., and Pei, S. (July, January 30). UAV-Based Video Analysis and Semantic Segmentation for SHM of Earthquake-Excited Structures. Proceedings of the 18th World Conference of Earthquake Engineering, Milan, Italy."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1114","DOI":"10.1111\/mice.12645","article-title":"Homography-Based Structural Displacement Measurement for Large Structures Using Unmanned Aerial Vehicles","volume":"36","author":"Weng","year":"2021","journal-title":"Comput.-Aided Civ. Infrastruct. Eng."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117741","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engstruct.2024.117741","article-title":"Rapid Full-Field Deformation Measurements of Tall Buildings Using UAV Videos and Deep Learning","volume":"305","author":"Shan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Eng. Struct."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109222","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2021.109222","article-title":"A Portable Three-Component Displacement Measurement Technique Using an Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) and Computer Vision: A Proof of Concept","volume":"176","author":"Perry","year":"2021","journal-title":"Measurement"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107869","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ymssp.2021.107869","article-title":"Non-Contact Structural Displacement Measurement Using Unmanned Aerial Vehicles and Video-Based Systems","volume":"160","author":"Ribeiro","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mech. Syst. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112131","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ymssp.2024.112131","article-title":"A Two-Stage Correction Method for UAV Movement-Induced Errors in Non-Target Computer Vision-Based Displacement Measurement","volume":"224","author":"Zhang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Mech. Syst. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107769","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2020.107769","article-title":"Swaying Displacement Measurement for Structural Monitoring Using Computer Vision and an Unmanned Aerial Vehicle","volume":"159","author":"Khuc","year":"2020","journal-title":"Measurement"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"918","DOI":"10.1002\/stc.360","article-title":"Cost-Effective Vision-Based System for Monitoring Dynamic Response of Civil Engineering Structures","volume":"17","author":"Fukuda","year":"2010","journal-title":"Struct. Control Health Monit."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e3025","DOI":"10.1002\/stc.3025","article-title":"Vision-Based Displacement Measurement Using an Unmanned Aerial Vehicle","volume":"29","author":"Han","year":"2022","journal-title":"Struct. Control Health Monit."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Van Den Einde, L., Conte, J.P., Restrepo, J.I., Bustamante, R., Halvorson, M., Hutchinson, T.C., Lai, C.-T., Lotfizadeh, K., Luco, J.E., and Morrison, M.L. (2021). NHERI@UC San Diego 6-DOF Large High-Performance Outdoor Shake Table Facility. Front. Built Environ., 6.","DOI":"10.3389\/fbuil.2020.580333"},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Barbosa, A. (2024, January 9\u201312). NHERI Converging Design Project: Overview of 6-Story Shake Table Test Program. Proceedings of the 2024 EERI Annual Meeting, Seattle, WA, USA."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"McBain, M., Pieroni, L., Araujo, R., Simpson, B.G., and Barbosa, A. (2025). Full-Scale Shake Table Testing of a Six-Story Mass Timber Building with Post-Tensioned Rocking Walls and Buckling-Restrained Boundary Elements. J. Struct. Eng., to be submitted."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Barbosa, A., Simpson, B., van de Lindt, J., Sinha, A., Field, T., McBain, M., Uarac, P., Kontra, S., Mishra, P., and Gioiella, L. (2025, January 09). Shake Table Testing Program for Mass Timber and Hybrid Resilient Structures Datasets for the NHERI Converging Design Project. In Shake Table Testing Program of 6-Story Mass Timber and Hybrid Resilient Structures (NHERI Converging Design Project) 2025. DesignSafe-CI. Available online: https:\/\/www.designsafe-ci.org\/data\/browser\/public\/designsafe.storage.published\/PRJ-5736\/#detail-86b00b74-105f-4c13-a63f-594b32c52444."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"04024183","DOI":"10.1061\/JSENDH.STENG-13752","article-title":"Shake-Table Testing of a Full-Scale 10-Story Resilient Mass Timber Building","volume":"150","author":"Pei","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Struct. Eng."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Sorosh, S., Hutchinson, T.C., Ryan, K.L., Smith, K.W., Kovac, A., Zabet, S., and Pei, S. (2025). Experimental Characterization of a Full-Scale Stair System Detailed to Achieve Seismic Resiliency. Earthq. Eng. Struct. Dyn., submitted."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"American Society of Civil Engineers (2021). Minimum Design Loads and Associated Criteria for Buildings and Other Structures, American Society of Civil Engineers."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Edwins, D.J. (2009). Modal Testing: Theory, Practice and Application, John Wiley & Sons."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"(2024, September 19). DJI. Available online: https:\/\/www.dji.com."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Lucas, B.D., and Kanade, T. (1981, January 24\u201328). An Iterative Image Registration Technique with an Application to Stereo Vision. Proceedings of the IJCAI\u201981: 7th International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence, Vancouver, BC, Canada."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Shi, J., and Tomasi, C. (1994, January 21\u201323). Good Features to Track. Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, Seattle, WA, USA."},{"key":"ref_34","first-page":"23","article-title":"A Threshold Selection Method from Gray-Level Histograms","volume":"11","author":"Otsu","year":"1975","journal-title":"Automatica"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"358","DOI":"10.1109\/4.996","article-title":"Design of an Image Edge Detection Filter Using the Sobel Operator","volume":"23","author":"Kanopoulos","year":"1988","journal-title":"IEEE J. Solid-State Circuits"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"679","DOI":"10.1109\/TPAMI.1986.4767851","article-title":"A Computational Approach to Edge Detection","volume":"PAMI-8","author":"Canny","year":"1986","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"72","DOI":"10.1016\/j.imavis.2012.10.005","article-title":"Accurate Subpixel Edge Location Based on Partial Area Effect","volume":"31","author":"Krissian","year":"2013","journal-title":"Image Vis. Comput."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Harris, C., and Stephens, M. (\u2013, January 31). A Combined Corner and Edge Detector. Proceedings of the Alvey Vision Conference 1988, Manchester, UK.","DOI":"10.5244\/C.2.23"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.7763\/IJCEE.2014.V6.802","article-title":"Application of Improved Harris Algorithm in Sub-Pixel Feature Point Extraction","volume":"6","author":"Zhang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Comput. Electr. Eng."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, X., Lu, L., and Gao, Y. (2012, January 14\u201317). A New Concentric Circle Detection Method Based on Hough Transform. Proceedings of the 2012 7th International Conference on Computer Science & Education (ICCSE), Melbourne, VIC, Australia.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCSE.2012.6295182"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hartley, R., and Zisserman, A. (2003). Multiple View Geometry in Computer Vision, Cambridge University Press. [2nd ed.].","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511811685"},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"(2024, September 19). Bouguet, J.Y. Camera Calibration Toolbox for MATLAB. 2015. Available online: https:\/\/data.caltech.edu\/records\/jx9cx-fdh55."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"(2024, September 19). Agisoft Metashape User Manual\u2014Professional Edition. Version 2.1. 2024. Available online: https:\/\/www.agisoft.com\/downloads\/user-manuals\/."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.1016\/S0924-2716(97)00005-1","article-title":"Digital Camera Self-Calibration","volume":"52","author":"Fraser","year":"1997","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"300","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2012.08.021","article-title":"\u2018Structure-from-Motion\u2019 Photogrammetry: A Low-Cost, Effective Tool for Geoscience Applications","volume":"179","author":"Westoby","year":"2012","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1525","DOI":"10.1587\/transinf.E96.D.1525","article-title":"ASPnP: An Accurate and Scalable Solution to the Perspective-n-Point Problem","volume":"E96.D","author":"Zheng","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEICE Trans. Inf. Syst."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2014.02.013","article-title":"Unmanned Aerial Systems for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing: A Review","volume":"92","author":"Colomina","year":"2014","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7031","DOI":"10.3390\/heritage6110367","article-title":"Condition Assessment of Heritage Buildings via Photogrammetry: A Scoping Review from the Perspective of Decision Makers","volume":"6","author":"Galantucci","year":"2023","journal-title":"Heritage"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hesch, J.A., and Roumeliotis, S.I. (2011, January 6\u201313). A Direct Least-Squares (DLS) Method for PnP. Proceedings of the 2011 International Conference on Computer Vision, Barcelona, Spain.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCV.2011.6126266"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1007\/s11263-008-0152-6","article-title":"EPnP: An Accurate O(n) Solution to the PnP Problem","volume":"81","author":"Lepetit","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int. J. Comput. Vis."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schonberger, J.L., and Frahm, J.-M. (2016, January 27\u201330). Structure-From-Motion Revisited. Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, Las Vegas, NV, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/CVPR.2016.445"},{"key":"ref_52","unstructured":"Zach, C. (2014, January 6\u201312). Robust Bundle Adjustment Revisited. Proceedings of the 13th European Conference on Computer Vision\u2014ECCV 872 2014, Zurich, Switzerland."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"746","DOI":"10.1016\/j.optlaseng.2008.05.005","article-title":"The Effect of Out-of-Plane Motion on 2D and 3D Digital Image Correlation Measurements","volume":"46","author":"Sutton","year":"2008","journal-title":"Opt. Lasers Eng."},{"key":"ref_54","unstructured":"(2024, September 19). MathWorks. Computer Vision Toolbox (R2023b); MathWorks Inc.: Natick, MA, USA, 2023. Available online: https:\/\/www.mathworks.com\/products\/computer-vision.html."}],"container-title":["Algorithms"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4893\/18\/2\/66\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,8]],"date-time":"2025-10-08T10:36:33Z","timestamp":1759919793000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4893\/18\/2\/66"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,26]]},"references-count":54,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,2]]}},"alternative-id":["a18020066"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/a18020066","relation":{},"ISSN":["1999-4893"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1999-4893","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,26]]}}}