{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,18]],"date-time":"2026-07-18T16:10:07Z","timestamp":1784391007717,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":205,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,2]],"date-time":"2025-05-02T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1746144000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100007957","name":"Innovative Research Group of Chongqing Municipal Education Commission","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["CXQT19026"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CXQT19026"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100007957","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100007957","name":"Innovative Research Group of Chongqing Municipal Education Commission","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["HZ2021011"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["HZ2021011"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100007957","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100007957","name":"Innovative Research Group of Chongqing Municipal Education Commission","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["0119240197"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["0119240197"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100007957","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Cooperative Project between Chinese Academy of Sciences and University in Chongqing","award":["CXQT19026"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CXQT19026"]}]},{"name":"Cooperative Project between Chinese Academy of Sciences and University in Chongqing","award":["HZ2021011"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["HZ2021011"]}]},{"name":"Cooperative Project between Chinese Academy of Sciences and University in Chongqing","award":["0119240197"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["0119240197"]}]},{"name":"Research Startup Fund of Chongqing University of Technology","award":["CXQT19026"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CXQT19026"]}]},{"name":"Research Startup Fund of Chongqing University of Technology","award":["HZ2021011"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["HZ2021011"]}]},{"name":"Research Startup Fund of Chongqing University of Technology","award":["0119240197"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["0119240197"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Algorithms"],"abstract":"<jats:p>With the continuous development of technology, blockchain has been widely used in various fields by virtue of its decentralization, data integrity, traceability, and anonymity. However, blockchain still faces many challenges, such as scalability and security issues. Artificial intelligence, with its powerful data processing capability, pattern recognition ability, and adaptive optimization algorithms, can improve the transaction processing efficiency of blockchain, enhance the security mechanism, and optimize the privacy protection strategy, thus effectively alleviating the limitations of blockchain in terms of scalability and security. Most of the existing related reviews explore the application of AI in blockchain as a whole but lack in-depth classification and discussion on how AI can empower the core aspects of blockchain. This paper explores the application of artificial intelligence technologies in addressing core challenges of blockchain systems, specifically in terms of scalability, security, and privacy protection. Instead of claiming a deep theoretical integration, we focus on how AI methods, such as machine learning and deep learning, have been effectively adopted to optimize blockchain consensus algorithms, improve smart contract vulnerability detection, and enhance privacy-preserving mechanisms like federated learning and differential privacy. Through comprehensive classification and discussion, this paper provides a structured overview of the current research landscape and identifies potential directions for further technical collaboration between AI and blockchain technologies.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/a18050263","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,2]],"date-time":"2025-05-02T07:44:23Z","timestamp":1746171863000},"page":"263","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":35,"title":["AI-Driven Optimization of Blockchain Scalability, Security, and Privacy Protection"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-6990-6701","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fujiang","family":"Yuan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Mechanical Engineering, Chongqing University of Technology, Chongqing 400054, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zihao","family":"Zuo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Mechanical Engineering, Chongqing University of Technology, Chongqing 400054, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yang","family":"Jiang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Mechanical Engineering, Chongqing University of Technology, Chongqing 400054, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-8861-6708","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Wenzhou","family":"Shu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of French Studies, Sichuan International Studies University, Chongqing 400031, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-2962-6334","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zhen","family":"Tian","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"James Watt School of Engineering, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-4602-2968","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Chenxi","family":"Ye","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Science and Technology, Hong Kong Baptist University, Hong Kong 999077, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Junye","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Mechanical Engineering, Chongqing University of Technology, Chongqing 400054, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2944-7151","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zebing","family":"Mao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Engineering Science and Mechanics, Shibaura Institute of Technology, 3-7-5 Toyosu, Koto-ku, Tokyo 135-8548, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xia","family":"Huang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Mechanical Engineering, Chongqing University of Technology, Chongqing 400054, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3995-3007","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Shaojie","family":"Gu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Magnesium Research Center, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto 860-8555, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2162-3798","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yanhong","family":"Peng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Mechanical Engineering, Chongqing University of Technology, Chongqing 400054, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,2]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yi, J., Wang, J., Tan, L., and Yuan, T. (2024). HMM-Based Blockchain Visual Automatic Deployment System. Appl. Sci., 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/app14135722"},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"1430","article-title":"Bitcoin: A beginning of a new phase","volume":"36","author":"Bouoiyour","year":"2016","journal-title":"Econ. Bull."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Nakamoto, S. (2016). Bitcoin Technology: A Peer-to-Peer Digital Cash Transaction. Int. J., 6."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Swan, M. (2015). Blockchain: Blueprint for a New Economy, O\u2019Reilly Media, Inc."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1799","DOI":"10.1080\/00036846.2015.1109038","article-title":"The economics of BitCoin price formation","volume":"48","author":"Ciaian","year":"2016","journal-title":"Appl. Econ."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85675","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2020.2992698","article-title":"Trustworthy blockchain oracles: Review, comparison, and open research challenges","volume":"8","author":"Rehman","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"891","DOI":"10.1049\/cmu2.12594","article-title":"Blockchain interoperability: The state of heterogenous blockchain-to-blockchain communication","volume":"17","author":"Kotey","year":"2023","journal-title":"IET Commun."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1016\/j.future.2018.05.046","article-title":"On blockchain and its integration with IoT. Challenges and opportunities","volume":"88","author":"Reyna","year":"2018","journal-title":"Future Gener. Comput. Syst."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Anagnostakis, A.G., Giannakeas, N., Tsipouras, M.G., Glavas, E., and Tzallas, A.T. (2021). IoT Micro-Blockchain Fundamentals. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21082784"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.46873\/2300-3960.1425","article-title":"Tracking mining company electric vehicles for sustainable development optimization using Distributed Ledger Technologies","volume":"23","author":"Hristova","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Sustain. Min."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hristova, T., Mitev, I., and Balev, V. (2022). Monitoring of Geotechnical Facilities Through DLT Solution, IOP Publishing.","DOI":"10.1088\/1755-1315\/970\/1\/012011"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpdc.2020.12.003","article-title":"When services computing meets blockchain: Challenges and opportunities","volume":"150","author":"Li","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Parallel Distrib. Comput."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1109\/MC.2017.3571047","article-title":"Blockchain technology in finance","volume":"55","author":"Treleaven","year":"2017","journal-title":"Computer"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Johar, S., Ahmad, N., Asher, W., Cruickshank, H., and Durrani, A. (2021). Research and Applied Perspective to Blockchain Technology: A Comprehensive Survey. Appl. Sci., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/app11146252"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112","DOI":"10.1016\/j.comcom.2021.06.019","article-title":"Capacity analysis of public blockchain","volume":"177","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Comput. Commun."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"76153","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2021.3081998","article-title":"Exploring Sybil and Double-Spending Risks in Blockchain Systems","volume":"9","author":"Iqbal","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2226","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2020.3035437","article-title":"Blockchain-based edge computing resource allocation in IoT: A deep reinforcement learning approach","volume":"8","author":"He","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Things J."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"166","DOI":"10.1109\/MWC.001.2000429","article-title":"A blockchain-based artificial intelligence-empowered contagious pandemic situation supervision scheme using internet of drone things","volume":"28","author":"Islam","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Wirel. Commun."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"D\u2019souza, S., Nazareth, D., Vaz, C., and Shetty, M. (2021, January 29\u201330). Blockchain and AI in pharmaceutical supply chain. Proceedings of the International Conference on Smart Data Intelligence (ICSMDI 2021), Tamil Nadu, India.","DOI":"10.2139\/ssrn.3852034"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/3517189","article-title":"Blockchain-based digital twins: Research trends, issues, and future challenges","volume":"54","author":"Suhail","year":"2022","journal-title":"ACM Comput. Surv. (CSUR)"},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"1","article-title":"Blockchain convergence: Analysis of issues affecting IoT, AI and blockchain","volume":"1","author":"Guergov","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Comput. Inf. Manuf. (IJCIM)"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122","DOI":"10.1109\/OJCS.2022.3188249","article-title":"Fusing blockchain and AI with metaverse: A survey","volume":"3","author":"Yang","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Open J. Comput. Soc."},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"871","article-title":"Artificial intelligence and blockchain integration in business: Trends from a bibliometric-content analysis","volume":"25","author":"Kumar","year":"2023","journal-title":"Inf. Syst. Front."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Junaid, S.B., Imam, A.A., Balogun, A.O., De Silva, L.C., Surakat, Y.A., Kumar, G., Abdulkarim, M., Shuaibu, A.N., Garba, A., and Sahalu, Y. (2022). Recent advancements in emerging technologies for healthcare management systems: A survey. Healthcare, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/healthcare10101940"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2569","DOI":"10.1109\/COMST.2023.3297395","article-title":"A survey on digital twin for industrial internet of things: Applications, technologies and tools","volume":"25","author":"Xu","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Surv. Tutor."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8587","DOI":"10.1002\/pc.27054","article-title":"Blockchain technology and AI-facilitated polymers recycling: Utilization, realities, and sustainability","volume":"43","author":"Verma","year":"2022","journal-title":"Polym. Compos."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Badidi, E. (2022). Edge AI and Blockchain for Smart Sustainable Cities: Promise and Potential. Sustainability, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/su14137609"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"94583","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2022.3201878","article-title":"Systematic Review on AI-Blockchain Based E-Healthcare Records Management Systems","volume":"10","author":"Haddad","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kumar, R., Singh, D., Srinivasan, K., and Hu, Y.C. (2023). AI-Powered Blockchain Technology for Public Health: A Contemporary Review, Open Challenges, and Future Research Directions. Healthcare, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/healthcare11010081"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1556","DOI":"10.1002\/widm.1556","article-title":"Exploring the convergence of Metaverse, Blockchain, and AI: A comprehensive survey of enabling technologies, applications, challenges, and future directions","volume":"14","author":"Uddin","year":"2024","journal-title":"Wiley Interdiscip. Rev.-Data Min. Knowl. Discov."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104111","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drudis.2024.104111","article-title":"Synergizing blockchain and artificial intelligence to enhance healthcare","volume":"29","author":"Omidian","year":"2024","journal-title":"Drug Discov. Today"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1515\/ijfe-2021-0299","article-title":"Artificial intelligence, big data, and blockchain in food safety","volume":"18","author":"Zhou","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Eng."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103892","DOI":"10.1016\/j.csi.2024.103892","article-title":"PSCBO: A provably secure consensus-based blockchain Oracle","volume":"91","author":"Yao","year":"2025","journal-title":"Comput. Stand. Interfaces"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"881","DOI":"10.1007\/s12243-024-01030-8","article-title":"NestedChain: \u201cBlockchain-inside-a-Blockchain\u201d new generation prototype","volume":"79","author":"Shi","year":"2024","journal-title":"Ann. Telecommun."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/3567582","article-title":"Connect API with Blockchain: A Survey on Blockchain Oracle Implementation","volume":"55","author":"Pasdar","year":"2023","journal-title":"ACM Comput. Surv."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3631","DOI":"10.1109\/JSAC.2022.3213330","article-title":"Data Propagation for Low Latency Blockchain Systems","volume":"40","author":"Wang","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Areas Commun."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aki (1983). Digital signatures: A tutorial survey. Computer, 16, 15\u201324.","DOI":"10.1109\/MC.1983.1654294"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aruna, S., Maheswari, M., and Saranya, A. (2020). Highly Secured Blockchain Based Electronic Voting System Using sha3 and Merkle Root, IOP Publishing.","DOI":"10.1088\/1757-899X\/993\/1\/012103"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8383","DOI":"10.1007\/s11227-023-05734-x","article-title":"Advancements in scalability of blockchain infrastructure through IPFS and dual blockchain methodology","volume":"80","author":"Mahmud","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Supercomput."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3415","DOI":"10.1287\/mnsc.2022.4532","article-title":"Economics of Permissioned Blockchain Adoption","volume":"69","author":"Iyengar","year":"2023","journal-title":"Manag. Sci."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110620","DOI":"10.1016\/j.comnet.2024.110620","article-title":"CORAL: A blockchain protocol for handling transactions with deadline constraints","volume":"251","author":"Liu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Comput. Netw."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/3645104","article-title":"Blockchain Data Storage Optimisations: A Comprehensive Survey","volume":"56","author":"Heo","year":"2024","journal-title":"ACM Comput. Surv."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1969","DOI":"10.1108\/IMDS-10-2020-0598","article-title":"Blockchain performance in supply chain management: Application in blockchain integration companies","volume":"121","author":"Hong","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ind. Manag. Data Syst."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4757","DOI":"10.1007\/s10586-023-04207-3","article-title":"Distributed medical data storage model based on blockchain technology","volume":"27","author":"Duan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Clust. Comput."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104730","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpdc.2023.104730","article-title":"Why blockchain needs graph: A survey on studies, scenarios, and solutions","volume":"180","author":"Song","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Parallel Distrib. Comput."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1410","DOI":"10.1109\/TETC.2020.2993032","article-title":"Circuit Copyright Blockchain: Blockchain-Based Homomorphic Encryption for IP Circuit Protection","volume":"9","author":"Liang","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Emerg. Top. Comput."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3091","DOI":"10.1109\/TNSE.2024.3359313","article-title":"Chainknot: Redactable Blockchain Protocol with Forced Synchronization","volume":"11","author":"Duan","year":"2024","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Netw. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2163","DOI":"10.1007\/s10586-022-03804-y","article-title":"Storage efficient blockchain models for constrained applications","volume":"26","author":"Rajendra","year":"2023","journal-title":"Clust. Comput."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103650","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jnca.2023.103650","article-title":"Survey of prominent blockchain development platforms","volume":"216","author":"Connors","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Netw. Comput. Appl."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102653","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tre.2022.102653","article-title":"Blockchain in logistics and production from Blockchain 1.0 to Blockchain 5.0: An intra-inter-organizational framework","volume":"160","author":"Choi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part E-Logist. Transp. Rev."},{"key":"ref_51","first-page":"204","article-title":"SME Performance Through Blockchain Technologies","volume":"64","author":"Rakshit","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Comput. Inf. Syst."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1327","DOI":"10.1007\/s12083-023-01466-0","article-title":"GradingShard: A new sharding protocol to improve blockchain throughput","volume":"16","author":"Wang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Peer-to-Peer Netw. Appl."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4507","DOI":"10.1109\/TIFS.2021.3107146","article-title":"K-Time Modifiable and Epoch-Based Redactable Blockchain","volume":"16","author":"Xu","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Inf. Forensics Secur."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"378","DOI":"10.1109\/TCSS.2022.3224764","article-title":"DAG-BLOCK: A Novel Architecture for Scaling Blockchain-Enabled Cryptocurrencies","volume":"11","author":"Qi","year":"2024","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Comput. Soc. Syst."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1007\/s12243-021-00861-z","article-title":"Realizing privacy aspects in blockchain networks","volume":"77","author":"Noam","year":"2022","journal-title":"Ann. Telecommun."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103977","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jnca.2024.103977","article-title":"A low-storage synchronization framework for blockchain systems","volume":"231","author":"Wang","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Netw. Comput. Appl."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24236","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2022.3189200","article-title":"AnonymousFox: An Efficient and Scalable Blockchain Consensus Algorithm","volume":"9","author":"Wan","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Things J."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stoyanov, I., Iliev, T., Mihaylov, G., Evstatiev, B., and Sokolov, S. (2018, January 25\u201328). Analysis of the cybersecurity threats in smart grid University of telecommunications and post, Sofia, Bulgaria. Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE 24th International Symposium for Design and Technology in Electronic Packaging(SIITME), Iasi, Romania.","DOI":"10.1109\/SIITME.2018.8599261"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bikov, T.D., Iliev, T.B., Mihaylov, G.Y., and Stoyanov, I.S. (2019, January 20\u201324). Phishing in depth\u2014Modern methods of detection and risk mitigation. Proceedings of the 2019 42nd International Convention on Information and Communication Technology, Electronics and Microelectronics (MIPRO), Opatija, Croatia.","DOI":"10.23919\/MIPRO.2019.8757074"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Valchanov, H., Edikyan, J., and Aleksieva, V. (2019). A Study of Wi-Fi Security in City Environment, IOP Publishing.","DOI":"10.1088\/1757-899X\/618\/1\/012031"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108395","DOI":"10.1016\/j.comnet.2021.108395","article-title":"Blockchain-based Initiatives: Current state and challenges","volume":"198","author":"Alam","year":"2021","journal-title":"Comput. Netw."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27457","DOI":"10.1007\/s10668-023-03768-y","article-title":"Blockchain-enabled enterprise bleaching green regulation banking evolution game analysis","volume":"26","author":"Xu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Environ. Dev. Sustain."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1097\/ICU.0000000000001111","article-title":"Artificial intelligence in ophthalmology","volume":"36","author":"Khossravi","year":"2025","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"178","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rce.2024.01.007","article-title":"Ethics and artificial intelligence","volume":"224","author":"Galiana","year":"2024","journal-title":"Rev. Clin. Esp."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104884","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engappai.2022.104884","article-title":"Artificial intelligence in industrial design: A semi-automated literature survey","volume":"112","author":"Tsang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Eng. Appl. Artif. Intell."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105071","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2024.105071","article-title":"Artificial intelligence for teaching and learning in schools: The need for pedagogical intelligence","volume":"217","author":"Diaz","year":"2024","journal-title":"Comput. Educ."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1832","DOI":"10.1093\/comjnl\/bxz156","article-title":"Artificial Intelligence Surpassing Human Intelligence: Factual or Hoax","volume":"64","author":"Khanam","year":"2021","journal-title":"Comput. J."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4061","DOI":"10.1007\/s00500-021-06593-5","article-title":"Intelligent manufacturing management system based on data mining in artificial intelligence energy-saving resources","volume":"27","author":"Guo","year":"2023","journal-title":"Soft Comput."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Carabin, G., Wehrle, E., and Vidoni, R. (2017). A review on energy-saving optimization methods for robotic and automatic systems. Robotics, 6.","DOI":"10.3390\/robotics6040039"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1315","DOI":"10.1007\/s00170-014-6737-z","article-title":"Reducing the energy consumption of industrial robots in manufacturing systems","volume":"78","author":"Paryanto","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol."},{"key":"ref_71","unstructured":"Achiam, J., Adler, S., Agarwal, S., Ahmad, L., Akkaya, I., Aleman, F.L., Almeida, D., Altenschmidt, J., Altman, S., and Anadkat, S. (2023). Gpt-4 technical report. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_72","unstructured":"Liu, A., Feng, B., Xue, B., Wang, B., Wu, B., Lu, C., Zhao, C., Deng, C., Zhang, C., and Ruan, C. (2024). Deepseek-v3 technical report. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gligorea, I., Cioca, M., Oancea, R., Gorski, A.T., Gorski, H., and Tudorache, P. (2023). Adaptive learning using artificial intelligence in e-learning: A literature review. Educ. Sci., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/educsci13121216"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S9","DOI":"10.1134\/S1064562422060205","article-title":"Trusted Artificial Intelligence: Challenges and Promising Solutions","volume":"106","author":"Turdakov","year":"2022","journal-title":"Dokl. Math."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108906","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmgm.2024.108906","article-title":"Estimating AChE inhibitors from MCE database by machine learning and atomistic calculations","volume":"134","author":"Thai","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Mol. Graph. Model."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"972","DOI":"10.2166\/hydro.2024.210","article-title":"Daily reservoir inflow prediction using stacking ensemble of machine learning algorithms","volume":"26","author":"Deb","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Hydroinform."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14622","DOI":"10.1109\/TMC.2024.3446829","article-title":"NeuroBCI: Multi-Brain to Multi-Robot Interaction Through EEG-Adaptive Neural Networks and Semantic Communications","volume":"23","author":"Ouyang","year":"2024","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Mob. Comput."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34295","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2024.e34295","article-title":"Identification of macrophage differentiation related genes and subtypes linking atherosclerosis plaque processing and metabolic syndrome via integrated bulk and single-cell sequence analysis","volume":"10","author":"Ning","year":"2024","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhou, Y., Narsilio, G., Makasis, N., Soga, K., Chen, P., and Aye, L. (2024). Artificial neural networks for predicting the performance of heat pumps with horizontal ground heat exchangers. Front. Energy Res., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fenrg.2024.1423695"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108224","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engappai.2024.108224","article-title":"Prioritizing Causation in Decision Trees: A Framework for Interpretable Modeling","volume":"133","author":"Zhang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Eng. Appl. Artif. Intell."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102545","DOI":"10.1016\/j.inffus.2024.102545","article-title":"PnT: Born-again tree-based model via fused decision path encoding","volume":"112","author":"Rokach","year":"2024","journal-title":"Inf. Fusion"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6244","DOI":"10.1109\/TNNLS.2024.3395148","article-title":"One-Class SVM Probabilistic Outputs","volume":"36","author":"Que","year":"2024","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Neural Netw. Learn. Syst."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105744","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cageo.2024.105744","article-title":"Intelligent fault prediction with wavelet-SVM fusion in coal mine","volume":"194","author":"Han","year":"2025","journal-title":"Comput. Geosci."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6569","DOI":"10.1007\/s11069-024-06457-9","article-title":"Forest fire mapping: A comparison between GIS-based random forest and Bayesian models","volume":"120","author":"Noroozi","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards"},{"key":"ref_85","first-page":"1898","article-title":"An XGboost Algorithm Based Model for Financial Risk Prediction","volume":"31","author":"Xu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Teh. Vjesn.-Tech. Gaz."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2655","DOI":"10.1002\/gj.4936","article-title":"Landslide susceptibility prediction modelling based on semi-supervised XGBoost model","volume":"59","author":"Shua","year":"2024","journal-title":"Geol. J."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, C., Chen, J., Li, J., Peng, Y., and Mao, Z. (2023). Large language models for human\u2013robot interaction: A review. Biomim. Intell. Robot., 3.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.birob.2023.100131"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gao, Y., Jiang, Y., Peng, Y., Yuan, F., Zhang, X., and Wang, J. (2025). Medical Image Segmentation: A Comprehensive Review of Deep Learning-Based Methods. Tomography, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/tomography11050052"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"596","DOI":"10.1631\/jzus.A2300479","article-title":"Novel soft robotic finger model driven by electrohydrodynamic (EHD) pump","volume":"25","author":"Bai","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Zhejiang Univ.-Sci. A"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1459","DOI":"10.1177\/1045389X241276216","article-title":"Design, modeling, and characteristics of ring-shaped robot actuated by functional fluid","volume":"35","author":"Mao","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Intell. Mater. Syst. Struct."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Peng, Y., Wang, Y., Hu, F., He, M., Mao, Z., Huang, X., and Ding, J. (2024). Predictive modeling of flexible EHD pumps using Kolmogorov\u2013Arnold Networks. Biomim. Intell. Robot., 4.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.birob.2024.100184"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mao, Z., Peng, Y., Hu, C., Ding, R., Yamada, Y., and Maeda, S. (2023). Soft computing-based predictive modeling of flexible electrohydrodynamic pumps. Biomim. Intell. Robot., 3.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.birob.2023.100114"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Peng, Y., Sakai, Y., Funabora, Y., Yokoe, K., Aoyama, T., and Doki, S. (2025). Funabot-Sleeve: A Wearable Device Employing McKibben Artificial Muscles for Haptic Sensation in the Forearm. IEEE Robot. Autom. Lett., 1\u20138.","DOI":"10.1109\/LRA.2025.3528229"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10050","DOI":"10.1109\/LRA.2024.3469811","article-title":"Multimodal strain sensing system for shape recognition of tensegrity structures by combining traditional regression and deep learning approaches","volume":"9","author":"Mao","year":"2024","journal-title":"IEEE Robot. Autom. Lett."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mao, Z., Hosoya, N., and Maeda, S. (2024). Flexible electrohydrodynamic fluid-driven valveless water pump via immiscible interface. Cyborg Bionic Syst., 5.","DOI":"10.34133\/cbsystems.0091"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"258","DOI":"10.1504\/IJHM.2023.132303","article-title":"Single-pixel image reconstruction based on block compressive sensing and convolutional neural network","volume":"6","author":"Lau","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydromechatron."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1504\/IJHM.2024.135990","article-title":"A machine learning-based image classification of silicon solar cells","volume":"7","author":"Verma","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydromechatron."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1504\/IJHM.2024.138261","article-title":"Artificial intelligence-based viscosity prediction of polyalphaolefin-boron nitride nanofluids","volume":"7","author":"Alawi","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydromechatron."},{"key":"ref_99","unstructured":"Tian, Z., Zhao, D., Lin, Z., Flynn, D., Zhao, W., and Tian, D. (2024, January 15\u201317). Balanced reward-inspired reinforcement learning for autonomous vehicle racing. Proceedings of the 6th Annual Learning for Dynamics & Control Conference, PMLR, Oxford, UK."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tian, Z., Zhao, D., Lin, Z., Zhao, W., Flynn, D., Jiang, Y., Tian, D., Zhang, Y., and Sun, Y. (2024). Efficient and balanced exploration-driven decision making for autonomous racing using local information. IEEE Trans. Intell. Veh., 1\u201317.","DOI":"10.1109\/TIV.2024.3432713"},{"key":"ref_101","unstructured":"Lin, Z., Tian, Z., Zhang, Q., Ye, Z., Zhuang, H., and Lan, J. (2024). A conflicts-free, speed-lossless KAN-based reinforcement learning decision system for interactive driving in roundabouts. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_102","unstructured":"Tian, Z., Lin, Z., Zhao, D., Zhao, W., Flynn, D., Ansari, S., and Wei, C. (2025). Evaluating Scenario-based Decision-making for Interactive Autonomous Driving Using Rational Criteria: A Survey. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lin, Z., Tian, Z., Zhang, Q., Zhuang, H., and Lan, J. (2024). Enhanced visual slam for collision-free driving with lightweight autonomous cars. Sensors, 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/s24196258"},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14596","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2024.3373892","article-title":"DPL-SLAM: Enhancing dynamic point-line SLAM through dense semantic methods","volume":"24","author":"Lin","year":"2024","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1080\/23742917.2024.2312671","article-title":"Cyber diplomacy: Defining the opportunities for cybersecurity and risks from Artificial Intelligence, IoT, Blockchains, and Quantum Computing","volume":"9","author":"Radanliev","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Cyber Secur. Technol."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"856","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scib.2025.01.041","article-title":"An Artificial Intelligence and Blockchain technology-based data management framework for multicenter randomized controlled trials","volume":"70","author":"Yun","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sci. Bull."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kwangmuang, P., Somabut, A., Duangngern, P., Changpetch, S., Dhithjaroen, C., Techapornpong, O., Sarakan, P., Chaijaroen, S., and Samat, C. (2025). Designing an AI-enhanced blockchain and FinTech curriculum for youth: A case study of educational and industrial collaboration. Educ. Inf. Technol., 1\u201337.","DOI":"10.1007\/s10639-025-13384-0"},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zheng, J., and Zhang, Y. (2025). TRBFT: An Efficient Blockchain Consensus for Edge Computing-Enabled IoT Systems. IEEE Internet Things J.","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2025.3529723"},{"key":"ref_109","unstructured":"Zhao, C., Zhou, Y., Zhang, S., Sheng, Q.Z., Zhang, Y., and Wen, S. (2025). ExClique: An Express Consensus Algorithm for High-Speed Transaction Process in Blockchains. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sahraoui, S., and Bachir, A. (2025). Lightweight Consensus Mechanisms in the Internet of Blockchained Things: Thorough Analysis and Research Directions. Digit. Commun. Netw., in press.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dcan.2024.12.007"},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xing, Z., Zhang, Z., Zhang, Z., Li, Z., Li, M., Liu, J., Zhang, Z., Zhao, Y., Sun, Q., and Zhu, L. (2025). Zero-Knowledge Proof-Based Verifiable Decentralized Machine Learning in Communication Network: A Comprehensive Survey. IEEE Commun. Surv. Tutor., 1.","DOI":"10.1109\/COMST.2025.3561657"},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s12083-024-01808-6","article-title":"LVCA: An efficient voting-based consensus algorithm in private Blockchain for enhancing data security","volume":"18","author":"Verma","year":"2025","journal-title":"Peer-to-Peer Netw. Appl."},{"key":"ref_113","first-page":"590","article-title":"Staking claims and shaking hands: Impact and benefit agreements as a technology of government in the mining sector","volume":"2","year":"2015","journal-title":"Extr. Ind. Soc."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Naeem, M., Khan, A., Rehman, A., Farooq, S., Mehboob, A., Abdali, A.S., and Ahmad, B. (2025). Does Artificial Intelligence with Blockchain Reduce the Costs of the Financial Sector?. Generative AI for Web Engineering Models, IGI Global.","DOI":"10.4018\/979-8-3693-3703-5.ch007"},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16933","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2025.3532800","article-title":"Optimizing Security in IoT Ecosystems Using Hybrid Artificial Intelligence and Blockchain Models: A Scalable and Efficient Approach for Threat Detection","volume":"13","author":"Govea","year":"2025","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"655","DOI":"10.1016\/j.future.2024.07.048","article-title":"PoAh 2.0: AI-empowered dynamic authentication based adaptive blockchain consensus for IoMT-edge workflow","volume":"161","author":"Dutta","year":"2024","journal-title":"Future Gener. Comput. Syst.-Int. J. Escience"},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sun, C., Li, D., Wang, B., and Song, J. (2023). AI-Enabled Consensus Algorithm in Human-Centric Collaborative Computing for Internet of Vehicle. Symmetry, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/sym15061264"},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8868","DOI":"10.3934\/math.2024432","article-title":"Ensuring data integrity in deep learning-assisted IoT-Cloud environments: Blockchain-assisted data edge verification with consensus algorithms","volume":"9","author":"Alruwaili","year":"2024","journal-title":"AIMS Math."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55370","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2023.3280798","article-title":"Blockchain Assisted Data Edge Verification With Consensus Algorithm for Machine Learning Assisted IoT","volume":"11","author":"Vaiyapuri","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_120","first-page":"6629433","article-title":"Nakamoto Consensus to Accelerate Supervised Classification Algorithms for Multiparty Computing","volume":"2021","author":"Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Secur. Commun. Netw."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1419360","DOI":"10.1155\/2022\/1419360","article-title":"Sustainable Smart Industry: A Secure and Energy Efficient Consensus Mechanism for Artificial Intelligence Enabled Industrial Internet of Things","volume":"2022","author":"Sasikumar","year":"2022","journal-title":"Comput. Intell. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1337","DOI":"10.1002\/spe.3319","article-title":"Blockchain and explainable AI for enhanced decision making in cyber threat detection","volume":"54","author":"Kumar","year":"2024","journal-title":"Softw.-Pract. Exp."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kim, S.K. (2022). Automotive Vulnerability Analysis for Deep Learning Blockchain Consensus Algorithm. Electronics, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/electronics11010119"},{"key":"ref_124","first-page":"1581","article-title":"Blockchain-Enabled Federated Learning with Differential Privacy for Internet of Vehicles","volume":"81","author":"Cui","year":"2024","journal-title":"CMC-Comput. Mater. Contin."},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3305","DOI":"10.1109\/JSAC.2022.3213347","article-title":"A Platform-Free Proof of Federated Learning Consensus Mechanism for Sustainable Blockchains","volume":"40","author":"Wang","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Areas Commun."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Deng, Q. (2019). Blockchain Economical Models, Delegated Proof of Economic Value and Delegated Adaptive Byzantine Fault Tolerance and their implementation in Artificial Intelligence BlockCloud. J. Risk Financ. Manag., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/jrfm12040177"},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14790","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2021.3064176","article-title":"The Use of Blockchain to Support Distributed AI Implementation in IoT Systems","volume":"9","author":"Alrubei","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Things J."},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3378383","DOI":"10.1049\/sfw2\/3378383","article-title":"Blockchain Consensus Scheme Based on the Proof of Distributed Deep Learning Work","volume":"2025","author":"Zhi","year":"2025","journal-title":"IET Softw."},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4211","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2020.3032162","article-title":"Consensus Algorithms and Deep Reinforcement Learning in Energy Market: A Review","volume":"8","author":"Jogunola","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Things J."},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118498","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2022.3220852","article-title":"Secure Trust-Based Delegated Consensus for Blockchain Frameworks Using Deep Reinforcement Learning","volume":"10","author":"Goh","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kim, S.K. (2022). Blockchain Smart Contract to Prevent Forgery of Degree Certificates: Artificial Intelligence Consensus Algorithm. Electronics, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/electronics11142112"},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118","DOI":"10.1109\/MCOM.001.2200223","article-title":"Intelligent Offloading in Blockchain-Based Mobile Crowdsensing Using Deep Reinforcement Learning","volume":"61","author":"Chen","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Mag."},{"key":"ref_133","first-page":"1295","article-title":"An Improved Practical Byzantine Fault-Tolerant Algorithm Based on XGBoost Grouping for Consortium Chains","volume":"82","author":"Wang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Comput. Mater. Contin."},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101957","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jksuci.2024.101957","article-title":"CE-PBFT: A high availability consensus algorithm for large-scale consortium blockchain","volume":"36","author":"Xiao","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. King Saud Univ.-Comput. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yuan, F., Huang, X., Zheng, L., Wang, L., Wang, Y., Yan, X., Gu, S., and Peng, Y. (2025). The Evolution and Optimization Strategies of a PBFT Consensus Algorithm for Consortium Blockchains. Information, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/info16040268"},{"key":"ref_136","first-page":"1625","article-title":"Analyzing Ethereum Smart Contract Vulnerabilities at Scale Based on Inter-Contract Dependency","volume":"135","author":"Lyu","year":"2023","journal-title":"CMES-Comput. Model. Eng. Sci."},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103076","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scico.2023.103076","article-title":"CrossFuzz: Cross-contract fuzzing for smart contract vulnerability detection","volume":"234","author":"Yang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci. Comput. Program."},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2874","DOI":"10.1109\/TSE.2020.2971482","article-title":"Checking Smart Contracts with Structural Code Embedding","volume":"47","author":"Gao","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Softw. Eng."},{"key":"ref_139","first-page":"1","article-title":"Survey on Quality Assurance of Smart Contracts","volume":"57","author":"Wei","year":"2025","journal-title":"ACM Comput. Surv."},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1007\/s10664-024-10446-8","article-title":"OpenSCV: An open hierarchical taxonomy for smart contract vulnerabilities","volume":"29","author":"Vidal","year":"2024","journal-title":"Empir. Softw. Eng."},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1362","DOI":"10.1587\/transinf.2024EDL8004","article-title":"Smart Contract Timestamp Vulnerability Detection Based on Code Homogeneity","volume":"E107D","author":"Wang","year":"2024","journal-title":"IEICE Trans. Inf. Syst."},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fei, J., Chen, X., and Zhao, X. (2023). MSmart: Smart Contract Vulnerability Analysis and Improved Strategies Based on Smartcheck. Appl. Sci., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/app13031733"},{"key":"ref_143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2189","DOI":"10.1109\/TSE.2021.3054928","article-title":"DefectChecker: Automated Smart Contract Defect Detection by Analyzing EVM Bytecode","volume":"48","author":"Chen","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Softw. Eng."},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1534","DOI":"10.1109\/TSE.2024.3392451","article-title":"CRPWarner: Warning the Risk of Contract-Related Rug Pull in DeFi Smart Contracts","volume":"50","author":"Lin","year":"2024","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Softw. Eng."},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wu, H., Dong, H., He, Y., and Duan, Q. (2023). Smart Contract Vulnerability Detection Based on Hybrid Attention Mechanism Model. Appl. Sci., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/app13020770"},{"key":"ref_146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, L., Chen, W., Wang, W., Jin, Z., Zhao, C., Cai, Z., and Chen, H. (2022). CBGRU: A Detection Method of Smart Contract Vulnerability Based on a Hybrid Model. Sensors, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/s22093577"},{"key":"ref_147","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32595","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2022.3162065","article-title":"CodeNet: Code-Targeted Convolutional Neural Network Architecture for Smart Contract Vulnerability Detection","volume":"10","author":"Hwang","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_148","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114","DOI":"10.1145\/3641846","article-title":"sGUARD plus: Machine Learning Guided Rule-Based Automated Vulnerability Repair on Smart Contracts","volume":"33","author":"Gao","year":"2024","journal-title":"ACM Trans. Softw. Eng. Methodol."},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1141","DOI":"10.1109\/TIFS.2023.3234895","article-title":"TxT: Real-Time Transaction Encapsulation for Ethereum Smart Contracts","volume":"18","author":"Ivanov","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Inf. Forensics Secur."},{"key":"ref_150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yu, R., Zhang, Y., Wang, Y., and Liu, C. (2023). TxMirror: When the Dynamic EVM Stack Meets Transactions for Smart Contract Vulnerability Detection. Symmetry, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/sym15071345"},{"key":"ref_151","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, J., Lu, G., Gao, Y., and Gao, F. (2023). A Smart Contract Vulnerability Detection Method Based on Multimodal Feature Fusion and Deep Learning. Mathematics, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/math11234823"},{"key":"ref_152","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111653","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jss.2023.111653","article-title":"Enhancing Ethereum smart-contracts static analysis by computing a precise Control-Flow Graph of Ethereum bytecode","volume":"200","author":"Pasqua","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Syst. Softw."},{"key":"ref_153","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Qian, S., Ning, H., He, Y., and Chen, M. (2022). Multi-Label Vulnerability Detection of Smart Contracts Based on Bi-LSTM and Attention Mechanism. Electronics, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/electronics11193260"},{"key":"ref_154","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3793","DOI":"10.1109\/TSE.2023.3271417","article-title":"Demystifying Random Number in Ethereum Smart Contract: Taxonomy, Vulnerability Identification, and Attack Detection","volume":"49","author":"Qian","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Softw. Eng."},{"key":"ref_155","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"154700","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2024.3482389","article-title":"Robust Vulnerability Detection in Solidity-Based Ethereum Smart Contracts Using Fine-Tuned Transformer Encoder Models","volume":"12","author":"Le","year":"2024","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_156","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, M., Xie, Z., Wen, X., Li, J., and Zhou, K. (2023). Ethereum Smart Contract Vulnerability Detection Model Based on Triplet Loss and BiLSTM. Electronics, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/electronics12102327"},{"key":"ref_157","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Park, J., Jeong, S., and Yeom, K. (2023). Smart Contract Broker: Improving Smart Contract Reusability in a Blockchain Environment. Sensors, 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/s23136149"},{"key":"ref_158","first-page":"2059","article-title":"Blockchain Smart Contract Meta-modeling","volume":"20","author":"Garrido","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Web Eng."},{"key":"ref_159","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gec, S., Stankovski, V., Lavbic, D., and Kochovski, P. (2023). A Recommender System for Robust Smart Contract Template Classification. Sensors, 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/s23020639"},{"key":"ref_160","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51485","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2024.3386751","article-title":"An Annotation Assisted Smart Contracts Generation Method","volume":"12","author":"Chen","year":"2024","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_161","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tong, Y., Tan, W., Guo, J., Shen, B., Qin, P., and Zhuo, S. (2022). Smart Contract Generation Assisted by AI-Based Word Segmentation. Appl. Sci., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/app12094773"},{"key":"ref_162","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"572","DOI":"10.1080\/00051144.2024.2307228","article-title":"Smarter and resilient smart contracts applications for smart cities environment using blockchain technology","volume":"65","author":"Margret","year":"2024","journal-title":"Automatika"},{"key":"ref_163","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, L., and Kim, D. (2022). A Peer-to-Peer Smart Food Delivery Platform Based on Smart Contract. Electronics, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/electronics11121806"},{"key":"ref_164","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1703","DOI":"10.1109\/JSYST.2022.3205266","article-title":"A Smart-Contract-Aided Plastic Credit Scheme","volume":"17","author":"Zhang","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Syst. J."},{"key":"ref_165","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9296","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2021.3050112","article-title":"Smart Contract-Based Agricultural Food Supply Chain Traceability","volume":"9","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_166","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109003","DOI":"10.1016\/j.comnet.2022.109003","article-title":"Exploiting smart contracts in PBFT-based blockchains: A case study in medical prescription system","volume":"211","author":"Garcia","year":"2022","journal-title":"Comput. Netw."},{"key":"ref_167","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1497","DOI":"10.1080\/00207543.2022.2039413","article-title":"Demonstration of a blockchain-based framework using smart contracts for supply chain collaboration","volume":"61","author":"Agrawal","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Prod. Res."},{"key":"ref_168","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6372","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2020.3033434","article-title":"Attribute-Based Access Control for Smart Cities: A Smart-Contract-Driven Framework","volume":"8","author":"Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Things J."},{"key":"ref_169","first-page":"3003","article-title":"Secure SLA Management Using Smart Contracts for SDN-Enabled WSN","volume":"17","author":"Karakoc","year":"2023","journal-title":"KSII Trans. Internet Inf. Syst."},{"key":"ref_170","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guo, Z.Y., Chen, Y.C., and Lin, H.P. (2022). Oblivious Access for Decentralized Database Systems: A New Asymmetric Framework from Smart Contracts. Symmetry, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/sym14040680"},{"key":"ref_171","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.1186\/s13677-023-00412-y","article-title":"An artificial intelligence lightweight blockchain security model for security and privacy in IIoT systems","volume":"12","author":"Selvarajan","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Cloud-Comput.-Adv. Syst. Appl."},{"key":"ref_172","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, J., and Li, J. (2024). Blockchain and Access Control Encryption-Empowered IoT Knowledge Sharing for Cloud-Edge Orchestrated Personalized Privacy-Preserving Federated Learning. Appl. Sci., 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/app14051743"},{"key":"ref_173","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"636","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dcan.2021.12.007","article-title":"An intelligent and privacy-enhanced data sharing strategy for blockchain-empowered Internet of Things","volume":"8","author":"Miao","year":"2022","journal-title":"Digit. Commun. Netw."},{"key":"ref_174","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101542","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jksuci.2023.03.020","article-title":"BV-ICVs: A privacy-preserving and verifiable federated learning framework for V2X environments using blockchain and zkSNARKs","volume":"35","author":"Smahi","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. King Saud Univ.-Comput. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_175","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"449","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejor.2023.08.040","article-title":"An explainable federated learning and blockchain-based secure credit modeling method","volume":"317","author":"Yang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Eur. J. Oper. Res."},{"key":"ref_176","first-page":"2959","article-title":"A Blockchain-Assisted Distributed Edge Intelligence for Privacy-Preserving Vehicular Networks","volume":"76","author":"Firdaus","year":"2023","journal-title":"CMC-Comput. Mater. Contin."},{"key":"ref_177","first-page":"4233238","article-title":"Blockchain Empowered Federated Learning for Distributed Network Security Behaviour Knowledge Base in 6G","volume":"2022","author":"Li","year":"2022","journal-title":"Secur. Commun. Netw."},{"key":"ref_178","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wan, C., Wang, Y., Xu, J., Wu, J., Zhang, T., and Wang, Y. (2024). Research on Privacy Protection in Federated Learning Combining Distillation Defense and Blockchain. Electronics, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/electronics13040679"},{"key":"ref_179","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, W., He, Y., Wang, X., Duan, Z., Liang, W., and Liu, Y. (2023). BFG: Privacy protection framework for internet of medical things based on blockchain and federated learning. Connect. Sci., 35.","DOI":"10.1080\/09540091.2023.2199951"},{"key":"ref_180","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13884","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2023.3340630","article-title":"Blockchain-Based Privacy-Preserving Federated Learning for Mobile Crowdsourcing","volume":"11","author":"Ma","year":"2024","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Things J."},{"key":"ref_181","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dcan.2022.05.020","article-title":"A blockchain based privacy-preserving federated learning scheme for Internet of Vehicles","volume":"10","author":"Wang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Digit. Commun. Netw."},{"key":"ref_182","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1817","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2020.3017377","article-title":"Privacy-Preserving Blockchain-Based Federated Learning for IoT Devices","volume":"8","author":"Zhao","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Things J."},{"key":"ref_183","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhu, C., Zhu, X., and Qin, T. (2024). An Efficient Privacy Protection Mechanism for Blockchain-Based Federated Learning System in UAV-MEC Networks. Sensors, 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/s24051364"},{"key":"ref_184","first-page":"37","article-title":"Privacy Data Management Mechanism Based on Blockchain and Federated Learning","volume":"74","author":"Mo","year":"2023","journal-title":"CMC-Comput. Mater. Contin."},{"key":"ref_185","first-page":"1967","article-title":"Blockchain-Enabled Federated Learning for Privacy-Preserving Non-IID Data Sharing in Industrial Internet","volume":"80","author":"Wang","year":"2024","journal-title":"CMC-Comput. Mater. Contin."},{"key":"ref_186","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e27176","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2024.e27176","article-title":"Secure and decentralized federated learning framework with non-IID data based on blockchain","volume":"10","author":"Zhang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"ref_187","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"176","DOI":"10.1109\/TSUSC.2024.3409329","article-title":"Safeguarding Patient Data-Sharing: Blockchain-Enabled Federated Learning in Medical Diagnostics","volume":"10","author":"Myrzashova","year":"2025","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Sustain. Comput."},{"key":"ref_188","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2280","DOI":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.2280","article-title":"Enhancing security in financial transactions: A novel blockchain-based federated learning framework for detecting counterfeit data in fintech","volume":"10","author":"Rabbani","year":"2024","journal-title":"PeerJ Comput. Sci."},{"key":"ref_189","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1027","DOI":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.1027","article-title":"SFedChain: Blockchain-based federated learning scheme for secure data sharing in distributed energy storage networks","volume":"8","author":"Meng","year":"2022","journal-title":"PeerJ Comput. Sci."},{"key":"ref_190","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhu, L., Hu, S., Zhu, X., Meng, C., and Huang, M. (2023). Enhancing the Security and Privacy in the IoT Supply Chain Using Blockchain and Federated Learning with Trusted Execution Environment. Mathematics, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/math11173759"},{"key":"ref_191","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jia, Y., Xiong, L., Fan, Y., Liang, W., Xiong, N., and Xiao, F. (2024). Blockchain-based privacy-preserving multi-tasks federated learning framework. Connect. Sci., 36.","DOI":"10.1080\/09540091.2023.2299103"},{"key":"ref_192","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, Y., Tang, Y., Zhang, Z., Li, M., Li, Z., Khan, S., Chen, H., and Cheng, G. (2023). Blockchain-Based Practical and Privacy-Preserving Federated Learning with Verifiable Fairness. Mathematics, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/math11051091"},{"key":"ref_193","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dong, C., Zhou, J., An, Q., Jiang, F., Chen, S., Pan, L., and Liu, X. (2023). Optimizing Performance in Federated Person Re-Identification through Benchmark Evaluation for Blockchain-Integrated Smart UAV Delivery Systems. Drones, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/drones7070413"},{"key":"ref_194","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dhasaratha, C., Hasan, M.K., Islam, S., Khapre, S., Abdullah, S., Ghazal, T.M., Alzahrani, A.I., Alalwan, N., Vo, N., and Akhtaruzzaman, M. (2024). Data privacy model using blockchain reinforcement federated learning approach for scalable internet of medical things. CAAI Trans. Intell. Technol.","DOI":"10.1049\/cit2.12287"},{"key":"ref_195","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, K. (2025). A Blockchain-Integrated Federated Learning Approach for Secure Data Sharing and Privacy Protection in Multi-Device Communication. Appl. Artif. Intell., 39.","DOI":"10.1080\/08839514.2024.2442770"},{"key":"ref_196","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cai, C., Xu, L., Zhou, A., Wang, R., Wang, C., and Wang, Q. (2020, January 6\u20139). EncELC: Hardening and Enriching Ethereum Light Clients with Trusted Enclaves. Proceedings of the IEEE INFOCOM 2020\u2014IEEE Conference on Computer Communications, Toronto, ON, Canada.","DOI":"10.1109\/INFOCOM41043.2020.9155385"},{"key":"ref_197","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7866","DOI":"10.1109\/TVT.2024.3355711","article-title":"Blockchain-Based Batch Authentication Scheme for Internet of Vehicles","volume":"73","author":"Shen","year":"2024","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol."},{"key":"ref_198","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shinde, R., Patil, S., Kotecha, K., and Ruikar, K. (2021). Blockchain for Securing AI Applications and Open Innovations. J. Open Innov. Technol. Mark. Complex., 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/joitmc7030189"},{"key":"ref_199","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"680","DOI":"10.1177\/03611981211045074","article-title":"TREAD: Privacy Preserving Incentivized Connected Vehicle Mobility Data Storage on InterPlanetary-File-System-Enabled Blockchain","volume":"2676","author":"Khan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Rec."},{"key":"ref_200","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yiu, N.C.K. (2021). Decentralizing Supply Chain Anti-Counterfeiting and Traceability Systems Using Blockchain Technology. Future Internet, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/fi13040084"},{"key":"ref_201","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Almaiah, M.A., Hajjej, F., Ali, A., Pasha, M.F., and Almomani, O. (2022). An AI\u2014Enabled Hybrid Lightweight Authentication Model for Digital Healthcare Using Industrial Internet of Things Cyber-Physical Systems. Sensors, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/s22041448"},{"key":"ref_202","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bouachir, O., Aloqaily, M., Karray, F., and Saddik, A.E. (2022, January 5\u20137). AI-based Blockchain for the Metaverse: Approaches and Challenges. Proceedings of the 2022 Fourth International Conference on Blockchain Computing and Applications (BCCA), San Antonio, TX, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/BCCA55292.2022.9922509"},{"key":"ref_203","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"626","DOI":"10.1109\/TII.2022.3204692","article-title":"TaLWaR: Blockchain-Based Trust Management Scheme for Smart Enterprises With Augmented Intelligence","volume":"19","author":"Singh","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Inform."},{"key":"ref_204","first-page":"2074","article-title":"Heterogeneous Blockchain and AI-Driven Hierarchical Trust Evaluation for 5G-Enabled Intelligent Transportation Systems","volume":"24","author":"Wang","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Intell. Transp. Syst."},{"key":"ref_205","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Khan, S., Khan, M., Khan, M.A., Khan, M.A., Wang, L., and Wu, K. (2025). A Blockchain-Enabled AI-Driven Secure Searchable Encryption Framework for Medical IoT Systems. IEEE J. Biomed. Health Inform., 1\u201314.","DOI":"10.1109\/JBHI.2025.3538623"}],"container-title":["Algorithms"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4893\/18\/5\/263\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T17:26:24Z","timestamp":1760030784000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4893\/18\/5\/263"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,2]]},"references-count":205,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,5]]}},"alternative-id":["a18050263"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/a18050263","relation":{},"ISSN":["1999-4893"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1999-4893","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,2]]}}}