{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,9]],"date-time":"2026-07-09T04:55:41Z","timestamp":1783572941022,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":99,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,19]],"date-time":"2025-07-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1752883200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Algorithms"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Graph analytics has grown increasingly popular as a model for data analytics across a variety of domains. This has prompted an emergence of solutions for large-scale graph analytics, many of which integrate user-facing domain-specific languages (DSLs) to support graph processing operations. These DSLs fall into two categories: query-based DSLs for graph-pattern matching and graph algorithm DSLs. While graph query DSLs are now standardized, research on DSLs for algorithmic graph processing remains fragmented and lacks a cohesive framework. To address this gap, we conduct a systematic literature review of algorithmic graph processing DSLs aimed at large-scale graph analytics. Our findings reveal the prevalence of property graphs (with 60% of surveyed DSLs explicitly adopting this model), as well as notable similarities in syntax and features. This allows us to identify a common template that can serve as the foundation for a standardized graph algorithm model, improving portability and unifying design between different DSLs and graph analytics toolkits. We additionally find that, despite achieving remarkable performance and scalability, only 20% of surveyed DSLs see real-life adoption. Incidentally, all DSLs for which user documentation is available are developed as part of academia\u2013industry collaborations or in fully industrial contexts. Based on these results, we provide a comprehensive overview of the current research landscape, along with a roadmap of recommendations and future directions to enhance reusability and interoperability in large-scale graph analytics across industry and academia.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/a18070445","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,21]],"date-time":"2025-07-21T08:47:14Z","timestamp":1753087634000},"page":"445","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Domain-Specific Languages for Algorithmic Graph Processing: A Systematic Literature Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9690-700X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Houda","family":"Boukham","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"SIP Resarch Team, Ecole Mohammadia d\u2019Ing\u00e9nieurs, Mohammed V University in Rabat, Rabat 10102, Morocco"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-0211-0913","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kawtar","family":"Younsi Dahbi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"SIP Resarch Team, Ecole Mohammadia d\u2019Ing\u00e9nieurs, Mohammed V University in Rabat, Rabat 10102, Morocco"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5709-5675","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dalila","family":"Chiadmi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"SIP Resarch Team, Ecole Mohammadia d\u2019Ing\u00e9nieurs, Mohammed V University in Rabat, Rabat 10102, Morocco"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Hegeman, T., and Iosup, A. (2018). Survey of Graph Analysis Applications. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Francis, N., Green, A., Guagliardo, P., Libkin, L., Lindaaker, T., Marsault, V., Plantikow, S., Rydberg, M., Selmer, P., and Taylor, A. (2018, January 10\u201315). Cypher: An Evolving Query Language for Property Graphs. Proceedings of the SIGMOD \u201918: 2018 International Conference on Management of Data, Houston, TX, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/3183713.3190657"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"van Rest, O., Hong, S., Kim, J., Meng, X., and Chafi, H. (2016, January 24). PGQL: A Property Graph Query Language. Proceedings of the GRADES \u201916: Fourth International Workshop on Graph Data Management Experiences and Systems, Redwood Shores, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/2960414.2960421"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Deutsch, A., Xu, Y., Wu, M., and Lee, V.E. (2020, January 14\u201319). Aggregation Support for Modern Graph Analytics in TigerGraph. Proceedings of the SIGMOD \u201920: 2020 ACM SIGMOD International Conference on Management of Data, Portland, OR, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/3318464.3386144"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Deutsch, A., Francis, N., Green, A., Hare, K., Li, B., Libkin, L., Lindaaker, T., Marsault, V., Martens, W., and Michels, J. (2022, January 12\u201317). Graph Pattern Matching in GQL and SQL\/PGQ. Proceedings of the SIGMOD \u201922: 2022 International Conference on Management of Data, Philadelphia, PA, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/3514221.3526057"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Edelkamp, S., and Schr\u00f6dl, S. (2012). Basic Search Algorithms. Heuristic Search, Morgan Kaufmann.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-372512-7.00002-X"},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"Browet, A. (2014). Algorithms for Community and Role Detection in Networks. [Ph.D. Thesis, Catholic University of Louvain]."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1016\/S0169-7552(98)00110-X","article-title":"The anatomy of a large-scale hypertextual web search engine","volume":"30","author":"Brin","year":"1998","journal-title":"Comput. Netw. Isdn Syst."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Chung, J. (2022). Graph Data Science Use Cases: Fraud and Anomaly Detection, Neo4j. White Paper."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1561\/1900000056","article-title":"Big Graph Analytics Platforms","volume":"7","author":"Yan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Found. Trends Databases"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"420","DOI":"10.1145\/3186728.3164139","article-title":"The ubiquity of large graphs and surprising challenges of graph processing","volume":"11","author":"Sahu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Proc. VLDB Endow."},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"60","article-title":"Scalable Graph Processing Frameworks: A Taxonomy and Open Challenges","volume":"51","author":"Heidari","year":"2018","journal-title":"ACM Comput. Surv."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1145\/3128571","article-title":"Graph Processing on GPUs: A Survey","volume":"50","author":"Shi","year":"2018","journal-title":"ACM Comput. Surv."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"595","DOI":"10.1007\/s00778-019-00548-x","article-title":"The ubiquity of large graphs and surprising challenges of graph processing: Extended survey","volume":"29","author":"Sahu","year":"2020","journal-title":"VLDB J."},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"31","article-title":"Demystifying Graph Databases: Analysis and Taxonomy of Data Organization, System Designs, and Graph Queries","volume":"56","author":"Besta","year":"2023","journal-title":"ACM Comput. Surv."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Singh, K., and Singh, V. (2016, January 16\u201318). Graph pattern matching: A brief survey of challenges and research directions. Proceedings of the 2016 3rd International Conference on Computing for Sustainable Global Development (INDIACom), New Delhi, India."},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"68","article-title":"Foundations of Modern Query Languages for Graph Databases","volume":"50","author":"Angles","year":"2017","journal-title":"ACM Comput. Surv."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bhowmick, S.S., Choi, B., and Li, C. (2017, January 14\u201319). Graph Querying Meets HCI: State of the Art and Future Directions. Proceedings of the SIGMOD \u201917: 2017 ACM International Conference on Management of Data, New York, NY, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/3035918.3054774"},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"36","article-title":"A Survey on Distributed Graph Pattern Matching in Massive Graphs","volume":"54","author":"Bouhenni","year":"2021","journal-title":"ACM Comput. Surv."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"n71","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.n71","article-title":"The PRISMA 2020 statement: An updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews","volume":"372","author":"Page","year":"2021","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hong, S., Chafi, H., Sedlar, E., and Olukotun, K. (2012, January 3\u20137). Green-Marl: A DSL for Easy and Efficient Graph Analysis. Proceedings of the ASPLOS XVII: Seventeenth International Conference on Architectural Support for Programming Languages and Operating Systems, London, England, UK.","DOI":"10.1145\/2150976.2151013"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Prountzos, D., Manevich, R., and Pingali, K. (2012, January 19\u201326). Elixir: A system for synthesizing concurrent graph programs. Proceedings of the OOPSLA \u201912: ACM International Conference on Object Oriented Programming Systems Languages and Applications, Tucson, AZ, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/2384616.2384644"},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"54","article-title":"Falcon: A Graph Manipulation Language for Heterogeneous Systems","volume":"12","author":"Cheramangalath","year":"2015","journal-title":"ACM Trans. Archit. Code Optim."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cheramangalath, U., Nasre, R., and Srikant, Y.N. (2017, January 5\u20138). DH-Falcon: A Language for Large-Scale Graph Processing on Distributed Heterogeneous Systems. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE International Conference on Cluster Computing (CLUSTER), Honolulu, HI, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/CLUSTER.2017.72"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cheramangalath, U., Nasre, R., and Srikant, Y.N. (2020). Falcon: A Domain Specific Language for Graph Analytics. Distributed Graph Analytics: Programming, Languages, and Their Compilation, Springer International Publishing.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-41886-1"},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Cheramangalath, U. (2017). Falcon: A Graph Manipulation Language for Distributed Heterogeneous Systems. [Ph.D. Thesis, Indian Institute of Science]."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Oracle (2024). Graph Developer\u2019s Guide for Property Graph, Oracle."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chang, B.Y.E. (2017). Palgol: A High-Level DSL for Vertex-Centric Graph Processing with Remote Data Access. Programming Languages and Systems, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-71237-6_15"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1145\/3276491","article-title":"GraphIt: A High-Performance Graph DSL","volume":"2","author":"Zhang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Proc. ACM Program. Lang."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Zhang, Y. (2020). GraphIt: Optimizing the Performance and Improving the Programmability of Graph Algorithms. [Ph.D. Thesis, Massachusetts Institute of Technology]."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"Zhang, Y. (2025, July 03). GraphIt\u2014A High-Performance Domain Specific Language for Graph Analytics. Available online: https:\/\/graphit-lang.org\/."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chamberlin, J., Zalewski, M., McMillan, S., and Lumsdaine, A. (2018, January 21\u201325). PyGB: GraphBLAS DSL in Python with Dynamic Compilation Into Efficient C++. Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE International Parallel and Distributed Processing Symposium Workshops (IPDPSW), Vancouver, BC, Canada.","DOI":"10.1109\/IPDPSW.2018.00059"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Peng, Z., Ashraf, R.A., Guo, L., Tian, R., and Kestor, G. (2023, January 21\u201325). Automatic Code Generation for High-Performance Graph Algorithms. Proceedings of the 2023 32nd International Conference on Parallel Architectures and Compilation Techniques (PACT), Vienna, Austria.","DOI":"10.1109\/PACT58117.2023.00010"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"200","DOI":"10.1145\/3022670.2951938","article-title":"Think like a vertex, behave like a function! A functional DSL for vertex-centric big graph processing","volume":"51","author":"Emoto","year":"2016","journal-title":"SIGPLAN Not."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4998","DOI":"10.1007\/s11227-019-02821-w","article-title":"A DSL for graph parallel programming with vertex subsets","volume":"76","author":"Emoto","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Supercomput."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e4","DOI":"10.1017\/S0956796821000277","article-title":"Fregel: A functional domain-specific language for vertex-centric large-scale graph processing","volume":"32","author":"Iwasaki","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Funct. Program."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104967","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpdc.2024.104967","article-title":"StarPlat: A versatile DSL for graph analytics","volume":"194","author":"Behera","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Parallel Distrib. Comput."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hong, S., Van Der Lugt, J., Welc, A., Raman, R., and Chafi, H. (2013, January 23). Early experiences in using a domain-specific language for large-scale graph analysis. Proceedings of the GRADES \u201913: First International Workshop on Graph Data Management Experiences and Systems, New York, NY, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/2484425.2484430"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sevenich, M., Hong, S., Welc, A., and Chafi, H. (2014, January 24\u201327). Fast In-Memory Triangle Listing for Large Real-World Graphs. Proceedings of the SNAKDD\u201914: 8th Workshop on Social Network Mining and Analysis, New York, NY, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/2659480.2659494"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1257","DOI":"10.14778\/3007263.3007265","article-title":"Using Domain-Specific Languages for Analytic Graph Databases","volume":"9","author":"Sevenich","year":"2016","journal-title":"Proc. VLDB Endow."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1145\/3414469","article-title":"DisGCo: A Compiler for Distributed Graph Analytics","volume":"17","author":"Rajendran","year":"2020","journal-title":"ACM Trans. Archit. Code Optim."},{"key":"ref_42","first-page":"5:1","article-title":"Spoofax at Oracle: Domain-Specific Language Engineering for Large-Scale Graph Analytics","volume":"Volume 109","author":"Mosses","year":"2023","journal-title":"Proceedings of the Eelco Visser Commemorative Symposium (EVCS 2023)"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Heras, D.B., Boug\u00e9, L., Mencagli, G., Jeannot, E., Sakellariou, R., Badia, R.M., Barbosa, J.G., Ricci, L., Scott, S.L., and Lankes, S. (2018). Large Scale Graph Processing in a Distributed Environment. Euro-Par 2017: Parallel Processing Workshops, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-75178-8"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Boukham, H., Wachsmuth, G., Dwars, M., and Chiadmi, D. (2022, January 6\u20137). A Multi-target, Multi-paradigm DSL Compiler for Algorithmic Graph Processing. Proceedings of the 15th ACM SIGPLAN International Conference on Software Language Engineering (SLE \u201922), Auckland, New Zealand.","DOI":"10.1145\/3567512.3567513"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/3022671.2984015","article-title":"A Compiler for Throughput Optimization of Graph Algorithms on GPUs","volume":"51","author":"Pai","year":"2016","journal-title":"SIGPLAN Not."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Brahmakshatriya, A., Furst, E., Ying, V.A., Hsu, C., Hong, C., Ruttenberg, M., Zhang, Y., Jung, D.C., Richmond, D., and Taylor, M.B. (2021, January 14\u201319). Taming the Zoo: The Unified GraphIt Compiler Framework for Novel Architectures. Proceedings of the 48th Annual International Symposium in Computer Architecture (ISCA), Spain (virtual event).","DOI":"10.1109\/ISCA52012.2021.00041"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wendt, N., Austin, T., and Bertacco, V. (2022, January 10\u201314). PriMax: Maximizing DSL application performance with selective primitive acceleration. Proceedings of the DAC \u201922, 59th ACM\/IEEE Design Automation Conference, San Francisco, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/3489517.3530431"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Brahmakshatriya, A., and Amarasinghe, S. (2022, January 2\u20136). GraphIt to CUDA Compiler in 2021 LOC: A Case for High-Performance DSL Implementation via Staging with BuilDSL. Proceedings of the 2022 IEEE\/ACM International Symposium on Code Generation and Optimization (CGO), Republic of Korea (virtual event).","DOI":"10.1109\/CGO53902.2022.9741280"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nguyen, D., Lenharth, A., and Pingali, K. (2013, January 3\u20136). A lightweight infrastructure for graph analytics. Proceedings of the SOSP \u201913: Twenty-Fourth ACM Symposium on Operating Systems Principles, Farminton, PA, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/2517349.2522739"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Green, A., Guagliardo, P., and Libkin, L. (2021). Property Graphs and Paths in GQL: Mathematical Definitions, Linked Data Benchmark Council (LDBC). Technical Reports TR-2021-01.","DOI":"10.54285\/ldbc.TZJP7279"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kepner, J., Aaltonen, P., Bader, D., Bulu\u00e7, A., Franchetti, F., Gilbert, J., Hutchison, D., Kumar, M., Lumsdaine, A., and Meyerhenke, H. (2016, January 13\u201315). Mathematical foundations of the GraphBLAS. Proceedings of the 2016 IEEE High Performance Extreme Computing Conference (HPEC), Waltham, MA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/HPEC.2016.7761646"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"305","DOI":"10.1109\/TKDE.2017.2762294","article-title":"High-Level Programming Abstractions for Distributed Graph Processing","volume":"30","author":"Kalavri","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Knowl. Data Eng."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Malewicz, G., Austern, M.H., Bik, A.J., Dehnert, J.C., Horn, I., Leiser, N., and Czajkowski, G. (2010, January 6\u201310). Pregel: A system for large-scale graph processing. Proceedings of the SIGMOD \u201910: 2010 ACM SIGMOD International Conference on Management of Data, Indianapolis, IN, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/1807167.1807184"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tessaris, S., Franconi, E., Eiter, T., Gutierrez, C., Handschuh, S., Rousset, M.C., and Schmidt, R.A. (2009). Foundations of RDF Databases. Reasoning Web. Semantic Technologies for Information Systems, Proceedings of the 5th International Summer School 2009, Brixen-Bressanone, Italy, 30 August\u20134 September 2009, Springer. Tutorial Lectures.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-03754-2"},{"key":"ref_55","unstructured":"Fowler, M. (2025, July 03). Language Workbenches: The Killer-App for Domain Specific Languages. Available online: https:\/\/martinfowler.com\/articles\/languageWorkbench.html."},{"key":"ref_56","unstructured":"Schuts, M. (2017). Industrial Experiences in Applying Domain Specific Languages for System Evolution. [Ph.D. Thesis, Radboud University]."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bucchiarone, A., Cicchetti, A., Ciccozzi, F., and Pierantonio, A. (2021). Use MPS to Unleash the Creativity of Domain Experts: Language Engineering Is a Key Enabler for Bringing Innovation in Industry. Domain-Specific Languages in Practice: With JetBrains MPS, Springer International Publishing.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-73758-0"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bucchiarone, A., Cicchetti, A., Ciccozzi, F., and Pierantonio, A. (2021). A Domain-Specific Language for Payroll Calculations: An Experience Report from DATEV. Domain-Specific Languages in Practice: With JetBrains MPS, Springer International Publishing.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-73758-0"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bucchiarone, A., Cicchetti, A., Ciccozzi, F., and Pierantonio, A. (2021). Migrating Insurance Calculation Rule Descriptions from Word to MPS. Domain-Specific Languages in Practice: With JetBrains MPS, Springer International Publishing.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-73758-0"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Denkers, J. (2019, January 26\u201330). A longitudinal field study on creation and use of domain-specific languages in industry. Proceedings of the 2019 27th ACM Joint Meeting on European Software Engineering Conference and Symposium on the Foundations of Software Engineering, Tallinn, Estonia.","DOI":"10.1145\/3338906.3341463"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"585","DOI":"10.1007\/s10270-016-0575-4","article-title":"Lessons learned from developing mbeddr: A case study in language engineering with MPS","volume":"18","author":"Voelter","year":"2019","journal-title":"Softw. Syst. Model."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1007\/s10270-024-01185-x","article-title":"OIL: An industrial case study in language engineering with Spoofax: OIL: An industrial case study in language engineering with Spoofax","volume":"24","author":"Bunte","year":"2024","journal-title":"Softw. Syst. Model."},{"key":"ref_63","unstructured":"Campagne, F. (2014). The MPS Language Workbench Volume I, CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform. [1st ed.]."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Eysholdt, M., and Behrens, H. (2010, January 17\u201321). Xtext: Implement Your Language Faster than the Quick and Dirty Way. Proceedings of the OOPSLA \u201910: ACM International Conference Companion on Object Oriented Programming Systems Languages and Applications Companion, Reno-Tahoe, NV, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/1869542.1869625"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Klint, P., Van Der Storm, T., and Vinju, J. (October, January 30). Rascal, 10 years later. Proceedings of the 2019 IEEE 19th International Working Conference on Source Code Analysis and Manipulation (SCAM), Cleveland, OH, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/SCAM.2019.00023"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kats, L.C., and Visser, E. (2010, January 17\u201321). The Spoofax Language Workbench. Proceedings of the OOPSLA \u201910: ACM International Conference Companion on Object Oriented Programming Systems Languages and Applications Companion, Reno-Tahoe, NV, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/1869542.1869592"},{"key":"ref_67","unstructured":"Lattner, C., and Adve, V. (2004, January 20\u201324). LLVM: A compilation framework for lifelong program analysis & transformation. Proceedings of the International Symposium on Code Generation and Optimization, 2004, Palo Alto, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1145\/278283.278285","article-title":"SSA is functional programming","volume":"33","author":"Appel","year":"1998","journal-title":"ACM Sigplan Not."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lattner, C., Amini, M., Bondhugula, U., Cohen, A., Davis, A., Pienaar, J., Riddle, R., Shpeisman, T., Vasilache, N., and Zinenko, O. (March, January 27). MLIR: Scaling Compiler Infrastructure for Domain Specific Computation. Proceedings of the 2021 IEEE\/ACM International Symposium on Code Generation and Optimization (CGO), Seoul, Republic of Korea (virtual event).","DOI":"10.1109\/CGO51591.2021.9370308"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1145\/2382616.2382620","article-title":"Beyond Social Graphs: User Interactions in Online Social Networks and their Implications","volume":"6","author":"Wilson","year":"2012","journal-title":"ACM Trans. Web"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"440","DOI":"10.1038\/30918","article-title":"Collective dynamics of `small-world\u2019 networks","volume":"393","author":"Watts","year":"1998","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_72","unstructured":"Bollob\u00e1s, B., Borgs, C., Chayes, J., and Riordan, O. (2003, January 12\u201314). Directed scale-free graphs. Proceedings of the SODA \u201903: Fourteenth Annual ACM-SIAM Symposium on Discrete Algorithms, Baltimore, MD, USA."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1175","DOI":"10.1007\/s10955-013-0749-1","article-title":"Scale-Free Graph with Preferential Attachment and Evolving Internal Vertex Structure","volume":"151","author":"Matuszak","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Stat. Phys."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cosrev.2012.12.001","article-title":"Data mining of social networks represented as graphs","volume":"7","author":"Nettleton","year":"2013","journal-title":"Comput. Sci. Rev."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"130","DOI":"10.1038\/43601","article-title":"Diameter of the World-Wide Web","volume":"401","author":"Albert","year":"1999","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chakrabarti, D., and Faloutsos, C. (2012). The RMat (Recursive MATrix) Graph Generator. Graph Mining: Laws, Tools, and Case Studies, Springer International Publishing.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-031-01903-6"},{"key":"ref_77","unstructured":"Erd\u00f6s, P., and R\u00e9nyi, A. (2006). On the evolution of random graphs. The Structure and Dynamics of Networks, Princeton University Press."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guo, Y., Varbanescu, A.L., Iosup, A., Martella, C., and Willke, T.L. (2014, January 22\u201326). Benchmarking graph-processing platforms: A vision. Proceedings of the ICPE \u201914: 5th ACM\/SPEC International Conference on Performance Engineering, Dublin, Ireland.","DOI":"10.1145\/2568088.2576761"},{"key":"ref_79","unstructured":"Mehrotra, P., Anand, V., Margo, D., Hajidehi, M.R., and Seltzer, M. (2024). SoK: The Faults in our Graph Benchmarks. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sridhar, U., Blanco, M.P., Mayuranath, R., Spampinato, D.G., Low, T.M., and McMillan, S. (2019, January 20\u201324). Delta-Stepping SSSP: From Vertices and Edges to GraphBLAS Implementations. Proceedings of the 2019 IEEE International Parallel and Distributed Processing Symposium Workshops (IPDPSW), Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.","DOI":"10.1109\/IPDPSW.2019.00047"},{"key":"ref_81","first-page":"409","article-title":"Evaluation of Compiler-Induced Vulnerabilities","volume":"16","author":"Hohnka","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Aerosp. Inf. Syst."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, C., Wu, Y., Shen, W., Zhao, Z., Chang, R., Liu, C., Liu, Y., and Ren, K. (2024, January 14\u201320). Demystifying Compiler Unstable Feature Usage and Impacts in the Rust Ecosystem. Proceedings of the ICSE \u201924: IEEE\/ACM 46th International Conference on Software Engineering, Lisbon, Portugal.","DOI":"10.1145\/3597503.3623352"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"156","DOI":"10.1145\/3640313","article-title":"Machine Learning for Refining Knowledge Graphs: A Survey","volume":"56","author":"Subagdja","year":"2024","journal-title":"ACM Comput. Surv."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"60","DOI":"10.1145\/3582302.3582320","article-title":"The World of Graph Databases from An Industry Perspective","volume":"51","author":"Tian","year":"2023","journal-title":"SIGMOD Rec."},{"key":"ref_85","first-page":"1:1","article-title":"A Researcher\u2019s Digest of GQL","volume":"Volume 255","author":"Geerts","year":"2023","journal-title":"Proceedings of the 26th International Conference on Database Theory (ICDT 2023)"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gray, J., Fisher, K., Consel, C., Karsai, G., Mernik, M., and Tolvanen, J.P. (2008, January 19\u201323). DSLs: The good, the bad, and the ugly. Proceedings of the OOPSLA Companion \u201908: Companion to the 23rd ACM SIGPLAN Conference on Object-Oriented Programming Systems Languages and Applications, Nashville, TN, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/1449814.1449863"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bucchiarone, A., Cicchetti, A., Ciccozzi, F., and Pierantonio, A. (2021). Domain-Specific Languages in Practice: With JetBrains MPS, Springer Nature.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-73758-0"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1109\/MS.2014.100","article-title":"Language Design with the Spoofax Language Workbench","volume":"31","author":"Wachsmuth","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Softw."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"198","DOI":"10.1145\/3589778","article-title":"PG-Schema: Schemas for Property Graphs","volume":"1","author":"Angles","year":"2023","journal-title":"Proc. ACM Manag. Data"},{"key":"ref_90","unstructured":"(2024). Information Technology\u2014Database Languages SQL\u2014Part 16: Property Graph Queries (SQL\/PGQ) (Standard No. ISO\/IEC 39075:2024)."},{"key":"ref_91","unstructured":"(2023). Information Technology\u2014Database Languages\u2014GQL (Standard No. ISO\/IEC 9075-16)."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1145\/3434642","article-title":"The future is big graphs: A community view on graph processing systems","volume":"64","author":"Sakr","year":"2021","journal-title":"Commun. ACM"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bonifati, A., \u00d6zsu, M.T., Tian, Y., Voigt, H., Yu, W., and Zhang, W. (2024, January 9\u201315). The Future of Graph Analytics. Proceedings of the SIGMOD\/PODS \u201924: Companion of the 2024 International Conference on Management of Data, Santiago, Chile.","DOI":"10.1145\/3626246.3658369"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1145\/3712311.3712323","article-title":"A Roadmap to Graph Analytics","volume":"53","author":"Bonifati","year":"2025","journal-title":"SIGMOD Rec."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106207","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neunet.2024.106207","article-title":"A Comprehensive Survey on Deep Graph Representation Learning","volume":"173","author":"Ju","year":"2024","journal-title":"Neural Netw."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3580","DOI":"10.1109\/TKDE.2024.3352100","article-title":"Unifying Large Language Models and Knowledge Graphs: A Roadmap","volume":"36","author":"Pan","year":"2024","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Knowl. Data Eng."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Leather, H., and Cummins, C. (2020, January 15\u201317). Machine Learning in Compilers: Past, Present and Future. Proceedings of the 2020 Forum for Specification and Design Languages (FDL), Kiel, Germany.","DOI":"10.1109\/FDL50818.2020.9232934"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Seeker, V., Cummins, C., Cole, M., Franke, B., Hazelwood, K., and Leather, H. (2024, January 2\u20136). Revealing Compiler Heuristics Through Automated Discovery and Optimization. Proceedings of the 2024 IEEE\/ACM International Symposium on Code Generation and Optimization (CGO), Edinburgh, Scotland, UK.","DOI":"10.1109\/CGO57630.2024.10444847"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cummins, C., Seeker, V., Grubisic, D., Roziere, B., Gehring, J., Synnaeve, G., and Leather, H. (2025, January 1\u20132). LLM Compiler: Foundation Language Models for Compiler Optimization. Proceedings of the CC \u201925: 34th ACM SIGPLAN International Conference on Compiler Construction, Las Vegas, NV, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/3708493.3712691"}],"container-title":["Algorithms"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4893\/18\/7\/445\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T18:12:46Z","timestamp":1760033566000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4893\/18\/7\/445"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,19]]},"references-count":99,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,7]]}},"alternative-id":["a18070445"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/a18070445","relation":{},"ISSN":["1999-4893"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1999-4893","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,19]]}}}