{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T01:31:55Z","timestamp":1760059915197,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":29,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,21]],"date-time":"2025-07-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1753056000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"NYU Wireless","award":["5R01GM121753-04 NCE","1840761 NCE 2"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["5R01GM121753-04 NCE","1840761 NCE 2"]}]},{"name":"US NIH National Institute of General Medical Sciences","award":["5R01GM121753-04 NCE","1840761 NCE 2"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["5R01GM121753-04 NCE","1840761 NCE 2"]}]},{"name":"US National Science Foundation","award":["5R01GM121753-04 NCE","1840761 NCE 2"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["5R01GM121753-04 NCE","1840761 NCE 2"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Algorithms"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Consider an evolving epidemic in which each person is either (S) susceptible and healthy; (E) exposed, contagious but asymptomatic; (I) infected, symptomatic, and quarantined; or (R) recovered, healthy, and susceptible. The inference problem, given (i) who is showing symptoms (I) and who is not (S, E, R) and (ii) the distribution of meetings among people each day, is to predict the number of infected people (state I) in future days (e.g., 1 through 20 days out into the future) for the purpose of planning resources (e.g., needles, medicine, staffing) and policy responses (e.g., masking). Each prediction horizon has different uses. For example, staffing may require forecasts of only a few days, while logistics (i.e., which supplies to order) may require a two- or three-week horizon. Our algorithm and system EpiInfer is a non-Markovian approach to forecasting infection rates. It is non-Markovian because it looks at infection rates over the past several days in order to make predictions about the future. In addition, it makes use of the following information: (i) the distribution of the number of meetings per person and (ii) the transition probabilities between states and uses those estimates to forecast future infection rates. In both simulated and real data, EpiInfer performs better than the standard (in epidemiology) differential equation approaches as well as general-purpose neural network approaches. Compared to ARIMA, EpiInfer is better starting with 6-day forecasts, while ARIMA is better for shorter forecast horizons. In fact, our operational recommendation would be to use ARIMA (1,1,1) for short predictions (5 days or less) and then EpiInfer thereafter. Doing so would reduce relative Root Mean Squared Error (RMSE) over any state of the art method by up to a factor of 4. Predictions of this accuracy could be useful for people, supply, and policy planning.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/a18070450","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,21]],"date-time":"2025-07-21T13:59:11Z","timestamp":1753106351000},"page":"450","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["EpiInfer: A Non-Markovian Method and System to Forecast Infection Rates in Epidemics"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-2839-7077","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jovan","family":"Kascelan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Science, New York University Abu Dhabi, Abu Dhabi P.O. Box 129188, United Arab Emirates"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ruoxi","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biostatistics, School of Global Public Health, New York University, New York, NY 10012, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7036-3312","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dennis","family":"Shasha","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Computer Science Department, Courant Institute of Mathematical Sciences, New York University, New York, NY 10012, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"700","article-title":"Contributions to the mathematical theory of epidemics. Part I","volume":"115","author":"Kermark","year":"1927","journal-title":"Proc. R. Soc. 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