{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,30]],"date-time":"2026-06-30T15:45:00Z","timestamp":1782834300473,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":38,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,22]],"date-time":"2025-07-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1753142400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000780","name":"EcoMobility","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["101112306"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["101112306"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000780","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000780","name":"EcoMobility","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["16MEE0316"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["16MEE0316"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000780","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002347","name":"BMBF","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["101112306"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["101112306"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002347","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002347","name":"BMBF","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["16MEE0316"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["16MEE0316"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002347","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Algorithms"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This paper presents a novel metascheduling algorithm to enhance communication efficiency in off-chip time-triggered multi-processor system-on-chip (MPSoC) platforms, particularly for safety-critical applications in aerospace and automotive domains. Time-triggered communication standards such as time-sensitive networking (TSN) and TTEthernet effectively enable deterministic and reliable communication across distributed systems, including MPSoC-based platforms connected via Ethernet. However, their dependence on static resource allocation limits adaptability under dynamic operating conditions. To address this challenge, we propose an offline metascheduling framework that generates multiple precomputed schedules corresponding to different context events. The proposed algorithm introduces a selective communication strategy that synchronizes context information exchange with key decision points, thereby minimizing unnecessary communication while maintaining global consistency and system determinism. By leveraging knowledge of context event patterns, our method facilitates coordinated schedule transitions and significantly reduces communication overhead. Experimental results show that our approach outperforms conventional scheduling techniques, achieving a communication overhead reduction ranging from 9.89 to 32.98 times compared to a two-time-unit periodic sampling strategy. This work provides a practical and certifiable solution for introducing adaptability into Ethernet-based time-triggered MPSoC systems without compromising the predictability essential for safety certification.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/a18080456","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,22]],"date-time":"2025-07-22T15:00:42Z","timestamp":1753196442000},"page":"456","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Scheduling the Exchange of Context Information for Time-Triggered Adaptive Systems"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-7220-8265","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Daniel","family":"Onwuchekwa","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Chair of Embedded Systems, University of Siegen, H\u00f6lderlinstra\u00dfe 3, 57076 Siegen, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-2181-7402","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Omar","family":"Hekal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Chair of Embedded Systems, University of Siegen, H\u00f6lderlinstra\u00dfe 3, 57076 Siegen, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-4483-1503","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Roman","family":"Obermaisser","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Chair of Embedded Systems, University of Siegen, H\u00f6lderlinstra\u00dfe 3, 57076 Siegen, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1109\/MCOMSTD.2018.8412457","article-title":"Time-Sensitive Networking Standards","volume":"2","author":"Farkas","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Stand. Mag."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"(2016). Time-Triggered Ethernet AS6802 (Standard No. SAE Standard AS6802)."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Loveless, A.T. (September, January 31). On TTEthernet for integrated Fault-Tolerant spacecraft networks. Proceedings of the AIAA SPACE 2015 Conference and Exposition, Pasadena, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.2514\/6.2015-4526"},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Bombardier CSeries\u2014TTTech (2025, May 21). TTTech. Available online: https:\/\/www.tttech.com\/aerospace\/resources\/case-studies\/bombardier-cseries."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"McLean, S.D., Craciunas, S.S., Hansen, E.A., and Pop, P. (2020, January 8\u201311). Mapping and scheduling automotive applications on ADAS platforms using metaheuristics. Proceedings of the 2020 25th IEEE International Conference on Emerging Technologies and Factory Automation (ETFA), Vienna, Austria.","DOI":"10.1109\/ETFA46521.2020.9212029"},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Gerlach, M., Hilbrich, R., and Wei\u00dfleder, S. (2011, January 1\u20133). Can cars fly? From avionics to automotive: Comparability of domain-specific safety standards. Proceedings of the Embedded World Conference, N\u00fcrnberg, Germany."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schoeberl, M. (2007, January 27\u201329). A Time-Triggered Network-on-Chip. Proceedings of the 2007 International Conference on Field Programmable Logic and Applications, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.","DOI":"10.1109\/FPL.2007.4380675"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ahmadian, H., and Obermaisser, R. (2015, January 26\u201328). Time-Triggered Extension Layer for On-Chip Network Interfaces in Mixed-Criticality Systems. Proceedings of the 2015 Euromicro Conference on Digital System Design, Madeira, Portugal.","DOI":"10.1109\/DSD.2015.33"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Obermaisser, R., Ahmadian, H., Maleki, A., Bebawy, Y., Lenz, A., and Sorkhpour, A.B. (2019). Adaptive time-triggered multi-core architecture. Designs, 3.","DOI":"10.3390\/designs3010007"},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Yang, C., and Orailoglu, A. (October, January 30). Predictable execution adaptivity through embedding dynamic reconfigurability into static MPSoC schedules. Proceedings of the 5th IEEE\/ACM International Conference on Hardware\/Software Codesign and System Synthesis, Salzburg, Austria."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sysarc.2018.10.001","article-title":"A Survey on Fault-Tolerant Application Mapping Techniques for Network-on-Chip","volume":"92","author":"Kadri","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Syst. Archit."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Singh, A.K., Shafique, M., Kumar, A., and Henkel, J. (June, January 29). Mapping on multi\/many-core systems: Survey of current and emerging trends. Proceedings of the 2013 50th ACM\/EDAC\/IEEE Design Automation Conference (DAC), Austin, TX, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/2463209.2488734"},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Lenz, A. (2020). System-Wide, Fault-Tolerant State Agreement Protocol for Time-Triggered MPSoC. [Ph.D. Thesis, Universit\u00e4t Siegen]."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lenz, A., and Obermaisser, R. (2017). Global Adaptation Controlled by an Interactive Consistency Protocol. J. Low Power Electron. Appl., 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/jlpea7020013"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, J., Xiong, H., Li, Q., Xiong, F., and Feng, J. (2022). Run-Time Reconfiguration Strategy and Implementation of Time-Triggered Networks. Electronics, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/electronics11091477"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Skalistis, S., and Kritikakou, A. (2019, January 3\u20136). Timely fine-grained interference-sensitive run-time adaptation of time-triggered schedules. Proceedings of the 2019 IEEE Real-Time Systems Symposium (RTSS), Hong Kong, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/RTSS46320.2019.00030"},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Skalistis, S., and Kritikakou, A. (2020, January 7\u201310). Dynamic interference-sensitive run-time adaptation of time-triggered schedules. Proceedings of the ECRTS 2020-32nd Euromicro Conference on Real-Time Systems, Virtual."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ahmadian, H., Nekouei, F., and Obermaisser, R. (2017, January 12\u201314). Fault recovery and adaptation in time-triggered Networks-on-Chips for mixed-criticality systems. Proceedings of the 2017 12th International Symposium on Reconfigurable Communication-Centric Systems-on-Chip (ReCoSoC), Madrid, Spain.","DOI":"10.1109\/ReCoSoC.2017.8016149"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isatra.2024.09.018","article-title":"Adaptive critic design for safety-optimal FTC of unknown nonlinear systems with asymmetric constrained-input","volume":"155","author":"Zhang","year":"2024","journal-title":"ISA Trans."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kim, H., Kim, Y.-J., and Kim, W.-T. (2024). Deep Reinforcement Learning-Based Adaptive Scheduling for Wireless Time-Sensitive Networking. Sensors, 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/s24165281"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.1108\/IJICC-03-2020-0021","article-title":"Adaptive task scheduling in IoT using reinforcement learning","volume":"13","author":"Pandit","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Intell. Comput. Cybern."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106","DOI":"10.1016\/j.future.2023.05.032","article-title":"Heterps: Distributed deep learning with reinforcement learning based scheduling in heterogeneous environments","volume":"148","author":"Liu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Future Gener. Comput. Syst."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alshaer, S., Lua, C., Muoka, P., Onwuchekwa, D., and Obermaisser, R. (2022, January 6\u20139). Graph Neural Networks Based Meta-scheduling in Adaptive Time-Triggered Systems. Proceedings of the 2022 IEEE 27th International Conference on Emerging Technologies and Factory Automation (ETFA), Stuttgart, Germany.","DOI":"10.1109\/ETFA52439.2022.9921580"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Obermaisser, R., and Kopetz, H. (2018). Time-Triggered Communication, CRC Press. Chapter 2.","DOI":"10.1201\/9781315217512"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18782","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2024.3367001","article-title":"Securing Multidestination Transmissions With Relay and Friendly Interference Collaboration","volume":"11","author":"Liang","year":"2024","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Things J."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Masmano, M., Ripoll, I., Crespo, A., and Metge, J. (2009, January 28\u201330). Xtratum: A hypervisor for safety critical embedded systems. Proceedings of the 11th Real-Time Linux Workshop, Dresden, Germany."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Kaiser, R., and Wagner, S. (2025, July 21). The PikeOS Concept History and Design SysGO AG White Paper. Available online: http:\/\/www.sysgo.com."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Faruque, S. (2019). Time division multiple access (TDMA). Radio Frequency Multiple Access Techniques Made Easy, Springer International Publishing.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-91651-4"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sinnen, O. (2007). Task Scheduling for Parallel Systems, John Wiley & Sons.","DOI":"10.1002\/0470121173"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Muoka, P., Umuomo, O., Onwuchekwa, D., and Obermaisser, R. (2022, January 3\u20134). Adaptation for Energy Saving in Time-Triggered Systems Using Meta-scheduling with Sample Points. Proceedings of the International Embedded Systems Symposium, Lippstadt, Germany.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-031-34214-1_3"},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"De Rainville, F.M., Fortin, F.A., Gardner, M.A., Parizeau, M., and Gagn\u00e9, C. (July, January USA). Deap: A python framework for evolutionary algorithms. Proceedings of the 14th annual Conference Companion on Genetic and Evolutionary Computation, Philadelphia, PA."},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"1","article-title":"Snap: A general-purpose network analysis and graph-mining library","volume":"8","author":"Leskovec","year":"2016","journal-title":"ACM Trans. Intell. Syst. Technol. (TIST)"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dick, R.P., Rhodes, D.L., and Wolf, W. (1998, January 18). TGFF: Task graphs for free. Proceedings of the Sixth International Workshop on Hardware\/Software Codesign. (CODES\/CASHE\u201998), Seattle, WA, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/278241.278309"},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Stuijk, S., Geilen, M., and Basten, T. (2006, January 28\u201330). SDF3: SDF For Free. Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference on Application of Concurrency to System Design (ACSD\u201906), Turku, Finland."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Simon, K., Ziegenbein, D., and Hamann, A. (2015, January 7). Real world automotive benchmarks for free. Proceedings of the 6th International Workshop on Analysis Tools and Methodologies for Embedded and Real-time Systems (WATERS), Lund, Sweden."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12666","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2023.3252820","article-title":"Metascheduling Using Discrete Particle Swarm Optimization for Fault Tolerance in Time-Triggered IoT-WSN","volume":"10","author":"Baniabdelghany","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Things J."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Muoka, P., Onwuchekwa, D., and Obermaisser, R. (2022). Adaptive Scheduling for Time-Triggered Network-on-Chip-Based Multi-Core Architecture Using Genetic Algorithm. Electronics, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/electronics11010049"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lua, C., Onwuchekwa, D., and Obermaisser, R. (2022, January 7\u201310). Ai-based scheduling for adaptive time-triggered networks. Proceedings of the 2022 11th Mediterranean Conference on Embedded Computing (MECO), Budva, Montenegro.","DOI":"10.1109\/MECO55406.2022.9797075"}],"container-title":["Algorithms"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4893\/18\/8\/456\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T18:14:08Z","timestamp":1760033648000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4893\/18\/8\/456"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,22]]},"references-count":38,"journal-issue":{"issue":"8","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,8]]}},"alternative-id":["a18080456"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/a18080456","relation":{},"ISSN":["1999-4893"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1999-4893","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,22]]}}}