{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,13]],"date-time":"2026-05-13T13:36:57Z","timestamp":1778679417139,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":42,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,24]],"date-time":"2026-04-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1776988800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Algorithms"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This article is an in-depth analysis of the performance and efficiency of various control systems used in quadrotor unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs). The study is focused on the comparison of three main control approaches, including Sliding Mode Control (SMC), Fuzzy Logic Control (FLC), and an extended version of Sliding Mode Control with the use of the Gray Wolf Optimizer (SMC-GWO), as well as a supportive validation model the Genetic Algorithm (SMC-GA). Based on the Newton\u2013Euler formulation, the mathematical model of a quadrotor has been developed to provide a true picture of the dynamic behavior of the quadrotor. The model was then implemented in MATLAB\/Simulink 2025b to test the performance of the system in its nominal and perturbed conditions. The findings have shown that the hybrid SMC-GWO controller has significant improvement in response speed, accuracy, and stability compared to the other controllers. Precisely, the SMC-GWO demonstrated 78.46 percent decrease in rise time and 23.40 percent decrease in settling time compared to the traditional SMC, as well as a nearly negligible steady-state error (SSE = 0.0008) in the roll channel. The proposed controller in the pitch channel reduced the rise time by 93.65 percent and the settling time by 20.22 percent, with a much smoother and more stable tracking and an effectively negligible steady-state error (SSE = 0.0001). The hybrid controller in the yaw channel had a 77.94 percent better rise time and 23.16 percent better settling time, resulting in a steady-state error of 0.0022. In relation to altitude control, SMC-GWO decreased the rise time by 91.87 percent and settling time by 25.04 percent over classical SMC, yet the steady-state error was almost zero. Under constant, time-varying actuator disturbances, the SMC-GWO controller also demonstrated better system stabilization and trajectory-tracking behavior than both SMC and FLC, as well as slightly better behavior than SMC-GA in the presence of faults and disturbances. These results verify that a UAV control framework based on the combination of the Gray Wolf Optimizer and Sliding Mode Control is more resilient, quick, and significantly more precise.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/a19050331","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,24]],"date-time":"2026-04-24T14:28:23Z","timestamp":1777040903000},"page":"331","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Performance Enhancement of Quadrotor UAVs via Gray Wolf Optimized Algorithm for Sliding Mode Control"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"19","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-5864-6051","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mustafa B.","family":"Nidham","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Aeronautical Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Baghdad, Baghdad 10071, Iraq"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0792-7031","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Khalid","family":"Yahya","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Istanbul Gelisim University, Istanbul 34310, Turkey"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3740-9486","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mehdi","family":"Safaei","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Economics, Administrative and Social Sciences, Logistics Management Department, Istanbul Gelisim University, Istanbul 34310, Turkey"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3125-3890","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nawal","family":"Rai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Materials, Energy Systems Technology and Environment Laboratory, University of Ghardaia, Gharda\u00efa 47000, Algeria"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-6645-5456","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Saleh","family":"Al Dawsari","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Engineering, Cardiff University, Cardiff CF24 3AA, UK"},{"name":"Electrical Engineering Department, College of Engineering, Najran University, Najran P.O. Box 1988, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.54097\/ajst.v6i2.9435","article-title":"A novel UAV integrated with fixed-wing aircraft and rotorcraft","volume":"6","author":"Zhang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Acad. J. Eng. Technol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"466","DOI":"10.1017\/aer.2022.75","article-title":"Applications and classifications of unmanned aerial vehicles: A literature review with focus on multi-rotors","volume":"127","author":"Sabour","year":"2023","journal-title":"Aeronaut. J."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ariante, G., and Del Core, G. (2025). Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UASs): Current State, Emerging Technologies, and Future Trends. 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