{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T01:11:03Z","timestamp":1760058663384,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":51,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,19]],"date-time":"2025-04-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1745020800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Deanship of Graduate Studies and Scientific Research, Jazan University, Saudi Arabia","award":["RG24-S066"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RG24-S066"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Axioms"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This paper studies the effects of resource limitations, immunity decay, and delays on an Ebola epidemic model and an optimal control strategy. The model includes two types of delays: a delay in the incubation period of infected individuals and a delay in treatment. Conditions for a Hopf bifurcation at the endemic equilibrium are verified, with its direction and stability analyzed via normal form theory and the center manifold theorem. We also studied the optimal control problem for the SIRD delay model using educational campaigns and Ebola survivors\u2019 immunity as control variables. Furthermore, we formulate an optimization problem based on Pontryagin\u2019s maximum principle. This problem uses a modified Runge-Kutta approach with delays to discover the best control strategy to reduce infections and intervention costs. Finally, simulation results confirm analytical conclusions and show the practical implications of the optimum Ebola control plan using the dde23 MATLAB R2024a built-in solver and DDE-Biftool.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/axioms14040313","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,20]],"date-time":"2025-04-20T20:24:16Z","timestamp":1745180656000},"page":"313","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Hopf Bifurcation and Optimal Control in an Ebola Epidemic Model with Immunity Loss and Multiple Delays"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Halet","family":"Ismail","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Applied Sciences, National Institute of Technology Goa, Cuncolim 403 703, Goa, India"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Lingeshwaran","family":"Shangerganesh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Applied Sciences, National Institute of Technology Goa, Cuncolim 403 703, Goa, India"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0186-0526","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ahmed Hussein","family":"Msmali","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mathematics, College of Science, Jazan University, P.O. Box 114, Jazan 45142, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9503-2077","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Said","family":"Bourazza","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mathematics, College of Science, Jazan University, P.O. Box 114, Jazan 45142, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9168-5126","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mutum Zico","family":"Meetei","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mathematics, College of Science, Jazan University, P.O. Box 114, Jazan 45142, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2023, April 20). WHO Ebola Situation Reports: Democratic Republic of the Congo. 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