{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,17]],"date-time":"2026-07-17T15:58:10Z","timestamp":1784303890155,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":106,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,2]],"date-time":"2025-04-02T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1743552000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Major Research Project of the National Social Science Foundation of China","award":["23&ZD215"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["23&ZD215"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["BDCC"],"abstract":"<jats:p>As a foundation of large language models, fine-tuning drives rapid progress, broad applicability, and profound impacts on human\u2013AI collaboration, surpassing earlier technological advancements. This paper provides a comprehensive overview of large language model (LLM) fine-tuning by integrating hermeneutic theories of human comprehension, with a focus on the essential cognitive conditions that underpin this process. Drawing on Gadamer\u2019s concepts of Vorverst\u00e4ndnis, Distanciation, and the Hermeneutic Circle, the paper explores how LLM fine-tuning evolves from initial learning to deeper comprehension, ultimately advancing toward self-awareness. It examines the core principles, development, and applications of fine-tuning techniques, emphasizing its growing significance across diverse field and industries. The paper introduces a new term, \u201cTutorial Fine-Tuning (TFT)\u201d, which annotates a process of intensive tuition given by a \u201ctutor\u201d to a small number of \u201cstudents\u201d, to define the latest round of LLM fine-tuning advancements. By addressing key challenges associated with fine-tuning, including ensuring adaptability, precision, credibility and reliability, this paper explores potential future directions for the co-evolution of humans and AI. By bridging theoretical perspectives with practical implications, this work provides valuable insights into the ongoing development of LLMs, emphasizing their potential to achieve higher levels of cognitive and operational intelligence.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/bdcc9040087","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,2]],"date-time":"2025-04-02T16:26:31Z","timestamp":1743611191000},"page":"87","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":77,"title":["LLM Fine-Tuning: Concepts, Opportunities, and Challenges"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"9","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3843-0164","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xiao-Kun","family":"Wu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Journalism and Communication, Renmin University of China, Beijing 100872, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Min","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Computer Science and Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6821-293X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Wanyi","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Journalism and Communication, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3358-2708","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rui","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Computer Science and Technology, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430074, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Limeng","family":"Lu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Journalism and Communication, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jia","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Computer Science and Technology, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430074, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kai","family":"Hwang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Data Science, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shenzhen 518172, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yixue","family":"Hao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Computer Science and Technology, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430074, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yanru","family":"Pan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Journalism and Communication, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Qingguo","family":"Meng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The School of Public Policy and Management, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kaibin","family":"Huang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong 999077, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Long","family":"Hu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Computer Science and Technology, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430074, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mohsen","family":"Guizani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Machine Learning Department, Mohamed bin Zayed University of Artificial Intelligence, Abu Dhabi P.O. Box 131818, United Arab Emirates"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Naipeng","family":"Chao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Media and Communication, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4039-891X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Giancarlo","family":"Fortino","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Informatics, Modeling, Electronics, and Systems, University of Calabria, 87036 Rende, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fei","family":"Lin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Engineering Science, Faculty of Innovation Engineering, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau 999078, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yonglin","family":"Tian","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The State Key Laboratory for Management and Control of Complex Systems, Institute of Automation, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Dusit","family":"Niyato","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Computing and Data Science, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 639798, Singapore"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fei-Yue","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The State Key Laboratory for Management and Control of Complex Systems, Institute of Automation, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,2]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"433","DOI":"10.1093\/mind\/LIX.236.433","article-title":"Computing machinery and intelligence","volume":"59","author":"Turing","year":"1950","journal-title":"Mind"},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Russell, S.J., and Norvig, P. 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