{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,3]],"date-time":"2026-09-03T01:07:56Z","timestamp":1788397676689,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":62,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,2]],"date-time":"2023-11-02T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1698883200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"USDOTs","award":["DTPH5616HCAP03"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["DTPH5616HCAP03"]}]},{"name":"USDOTs","award":["693JK318500010CAAP"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["693JK318500010CAAP"]}]},{"name":"USDOTs","award":["693JK31850009CAAP"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["693JK31850009CAAP"]}]},{"name":"USDOTs","award":["693JK32110003POTA"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["693JK32110003POTA"]}]},{"name":"USDOTs","award":["693JK32250007CAAP"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["693JK32250007CAAP"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Computation"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Welded joints in metallic pipelines and other structures are used to connect metallic structures. Welding defects, such as cracks and lack of fusion, are vulnerable to initiating early-age cracking and corrosion. The present damage identification techniques use ultrasonic-guided wave procedures, which depend on the change in the physical characteristics of waveforms as they propagate to determine damage states. However, the complexity of geometry and material discontinuity (e.g., the roughness of a weldment with or without defects) could lead to complicated wave reflection and scatters, thus increasing the difficulty in the signal processing. Artificial intelligence and machine learning exhibit their capability for data fusion, including processing signals originally from ultrasonic-guided waves. This study aims to utilize deep learning approaches, including a convolutional neural network (CNN), Long-short term memory network (LSTM), or hybrid CNN-LSTM model, to demonstrate the capability in automation for damage detection for pipes with welded joints embedded in soil. The damage features in terms of welding defect types and severity as well as multiple defects are used to understand the effectiveness of the hybrid CNN-LSTM model, which is further compared to the two commonly used deep learning approaches, CNN and LSTM. The results showed the hybrid CNN-LSTM model has much higher classification accuracy for damage states under all scenarios in comparison with the CNN and LSTM models. Furthermore, the impacts of the pipelines embedded in different types of materials, ranging from loose sand to stiff soil, on signal processing and data classification were further calibrated. The results demonstrated these deep learning approaches can still perform well to detect various pipeline damage under varying embedment conditions. However, the results demonstrate when concrete is used as an embedding material, high attention to absorbing the signal energy of concrete could pose a challenge for the signal processing, particularly under high noise levels.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/computation11110218","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,3]],"date-time":"2023-11-03T02:41:56Z","timestamp":1698979316000},"page":"218","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":16,"title":["Deep Learning Enriched Automation in Damage Detection for Sustainable Operation in Pipelines with Welding Defects under Varying Embedment Conditions"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"given":"Li","family":"Shang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND 58018, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zi","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND 58018, USA"},{"name":"School of Civil Engineering, Jilin Jianzhu University, Changchun 130118, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3066-5041","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fujian","family":"Tang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Civil Engineering, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian 116024, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2002-5892","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Qi","family":"Cao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Civil Engineering, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian 116024, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nita","family":"Yodo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND 58018, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hong","family":"Pan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND 58018, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zhibin","family":"Lin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND 58018, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,2]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"04018068","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)BE.1943-5592.0001246","article-title":"Electrochemical Characterization of Steel Bridge Welds under Simulated Durability Test","volume":"23","author":"Lin","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. 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