{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,13]],"date-time":"2025-11-13T10:26:09Z","timestamp":1763029569934,"version":"3.45.0"},"reference-count":36,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,13]],"date-time":"2025-11-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1762992000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"PAPIIT-UNAM Project","award":["IT100825"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["IT100825"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Computation"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Extreme Operational Gusts (EOGs) are critical for assessing the effects of extreme winds on Wind Energy Conversion Systems (WECSs). In regions like La Ventosa, Oaxaca, Mexico\u2014characterized by strong and frequent gusts\u2014the performance and reliability of low-power WECSs can be severely impacted. Traditionally, EOG effects have been analyzed using mathematical models from the IEC 61400-2 standard, which assumes a symmetric gust taxonomy. However, field data have revealed inconsistencies with this model, leading to the development of new asymmetrical taxonomies, such as Manwell\u2019s. This study presents a taxonomic characterization of EOGs in La Ventosa using 1 Hz wind speed data collected over one year (December 2017\u2013November 2018), during which 1655 events were detected. A dedicated detection method was implemented to capture gusts with amplitudes and durations exceeding the IEC range, allowing systematic classification of previously unrecognized patterns. Based on these results, a new taxonomy and a mathematical model were developed to simulate any identified gust. These tools provide more realistic simulations for improving WECS protection under extreme conditions. The analysis shows that Manwell\u2019s taxonomy represents 50.39% of events, the proposed classification 37.04%, and IEC 61400-2 only 12.57%, underscoring its limited applicability to high-wind sites like La Ventosa.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/computation13110268","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,13]],"date-time":"2025-11-13T09:59:09Z","timestamp":1763027949000},"page":"268","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Detection, Taxonomic Characterization, and Modeling of Extreme Operational Gusts in La Ventosa, Oaxaca, Mexico"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-6054-0286","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"\u00c1ngel D. J.","family":"Guill\u00e9n-Olivera","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Instituto de Estudios de la Energ\u00eda, Universidad del Istmo, Ciudad Universitaria S\/N, Barrio Santa Cruz Tagolaba, Tehuantepec 70760, Mexico"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-5639-766X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Efra\u00edn","family":"Due\u00f1as-Reyes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Instituto de Estudios de la Energ\u00eda, Universidad del Istmo, Ciudad Universitaria S\/N, Barrio Santa Cruz Tagolaba, Tehuantepec 70760, Mexico"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0199-5252","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Emmanuel","family":"Hern\u00e1ndez-Mayoral","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Instituto de Estudios de la Energ\u00eda, SECIHTI-Universidad Nacional Aut\u00f3noma de M\u00e9xico, Priv. Xochicalco S\/N, Temixco 62580, Mexico"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3664-1881","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Isaac","family":"Montoya De Los Santos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Instituto de Estudios de la Energ\u00eda, Universidad del Istmo, Ciudad Universitaria S\/N, Barrio Santa Cruz Tagolaba, Tehuantepec 70760, Mexico"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6240-0152","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ricardo","family":"Carre\u00f1o-Aguilera","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departamento de Ingenier\u00eda en Computaci\u00f3n, Universidad del Istmo, Ciudad Universitaria S\/N, Barrio Santa Cruz Tagolaba, Tehuantepec 70760, Mexico"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5894-3023","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"O. A.","family":"Jaramillo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Instituto de Energ\u00edas Renovables, Universidad Nacional Aut\u00f3noma de M\u00e9xico, Priv. Xochicalco S\/N, Temixco 62580, Mexico"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Energy Institute (2025). Statistical Review of World Energy, Energy Institute. [74th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Global Wind Energy Council (2024). Global Wind Report 2024, Global Wind Energy Council."},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"2321","article-title":"Drivers of extreme wind events in Mexico for windpower applications","volume":"40","author":"Thomas","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.egyr.2024.11.074","article-title":"Multi-step wind energy forecasting in the Mexican Isthmus using machine and deep learning","volume":"13","year":"2025","journal-title":"Energy Rep."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1613","DOI":"10.1016\/j.renene.2004.02.001","article-title":"Wind speed analysis in La Ventosa, Mexico: A bimodal probability distribution case","volume":"29","author":"Jaramillo","year":"2004","journal-title":"Renew. Energy"},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Villalobos, C.A.L. (2019). Caracterizaci\u00f3n de la Intensidad de Turbulencia y Energ\u00eda Contenida en R\u00e1fagas Para Aplicaciones en Energ\u00eda E\u00f3lica. [Ph.D. Thesis, Universidad Nacional Aut\u00f3noma de M\u00e9xico]."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lei, Z., Lin, H., Tang, X., Xiong, Y., and Wen, H. (2025). Wind turbine blade fault detection method based on TROI-SVM. Sensors, 25.","DOI":"10.3390\/s25030720"},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"1702","article-title":"Wind turbine electrohydraulic transmission system control for maximum power tracking with pump fault","volume":"237","author":"Kumar","year":"2023","journal-title":"Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. Part I J. Syst. Control Eng."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1209","DOI":"10.5194\/wes-7-1209-2022","article-title":"Impacts of wind field characteristics and non-steady deterministic wind events on time-varying main-bearing loads","volume":"7","author":"Hart","year":"2022","journal-title":"Wind. Energy Sci."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.21608\/ijaes.2023.221324.1020","article-title":"Mitigation of voltage and frequency oscillations of a microgrid during wind gust by using fuzzy-controlled flywheel energy storage","volume":"6","author":"Zobair","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Energy Syst."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1016\/j.renene.2017.12.086","article-title":"Small wind turbines: A numerical study for aerodynamic performance assessment under gust conditions","volume":"121","author":"Menegozzo","year":"2018","journal-title":"Renew. Energy"},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"(2014). IEC 61400-1 Ed 3.1, International Electrotechnical Commission. Wind Turbines\u2014Part 1: Design Requirements."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"(2013). IEC 61400-2 Ed 3.0, International Electrotechnical Commission. Wind Turbines\u2014Part 2: Design Requirements for Small Wind Turbines."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bao, D., Shi, Z., Li, C., Jiang, A., Han, Q., Luo, Y., and Zhang, S. (2024). A study on the influence of different inflow conditions on the output power and dynamic response characteristics of a variable pitch wind turbine structure. Energies, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/en17235818"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"358","DOI":"10.1016\/j.renene.2020.03.103","article-title":"A study of dynamic response of a wind turbine blade based on the multi-body dynamics method","volume":"155","author":"Xu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Renew. Energy"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"887","DOI":"10.1016\/j.renene.2017.06.048","article-title":"Effects of aeroelastic tailoring on performance characteristics of wind turbine systems","volume":"114","author":"Scott","year":"2017","journal-title":"Renew. Energy"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104333","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apor.2024.104333","article-title":"Coupled dynamics analysis of floating wind turbine mooring system under extreme operating gust","volume":"154","author":"Wang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Appl. Ocean. Res."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Srinivasan, L., Ram, N., Rengarajan, S.B., Divakaran, U., Mohammad, A., and Velamati, R.K. (2023). Effect of macroscopic turbulent gust on the aerodynamic performance of vertical axis wind turbine. Energies, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/en16052250"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"012064","DOI":"10.1088\/1742-6596\/2626\/1\/012064","article-title":"The impact of unsteadiness on the aerodynamic loads of a floating offshore wind turbine","volume":"2626","author":"Schulz","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Phys. Conf. Ser."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"O\u2019Donnell, C.W., Salari, M.E., and Toal, D.J. (2021). A study on directly interconnected offshore wind systems during wind gust conditions. Energies, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/en15010168"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"854","DOI":"10.1109\/TLA.2024.10705994","article-title":"Impact of the extreme operating gusts on power converter connected to PMSG-based wind turbine for reliability analysis","volume":"22","author":"Reyes","year":"2024","journal-title":"IEEE Lat. Am. Trans."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Manwell, J., McGowan, J., and Rogers, A. (2003). Wind Energy Explained: Theory, Design and Application, John Wiley & Sons. [1st ed.].","DOI":"10.1002\/0470846127"},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Branlard, E. (2009). Wind Energy: On the Statistics of Gusts and Their Propagation Through a Wind Farm."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3797","DOI":"10.5194\/acp-19-3797-2019","article-title":"Characterizing wind gusts in complex terrain","volume":"19","author":"Letson","year":"2019","journal-title":"Atmos. Chem. Phys."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1459","DOI":"10.1175\/JAMC-D-18-0040.1","article-title":"Wind gust characterization at wind turbine relevant heights in moderately complex terrain","volume":"57","author":"Hu","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Appl. Meteorol. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1134","DOI":"10.1016\/j.renene.2019.07.058","article-title":"Measured gust events in the urban environment, a comparison with the IEC standard","volume":"146","author":"Rakib","year":"2020","journal-title":"Renew. Energy"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mallat, S. (1999). A Wavelet Tour of Signal Processing, Academic Press. [1st ed.].","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-012466606-1\/50008-8"},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Larsen, G.C., and Hansen, K.S. (2004). Database on Wind Characteristics\u2014Analyses of Wind Turbine Design Loads, Forskningscenter Risoe. Risoe-R No. 1473(EN)."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Nabout, A.A., and Tibken, B. (2005, January 4\u20138). Wavelet descriptors for object recognition using Mexican hat function. Proceedings of the 16th IFAC World Congress, Prague, Czech Republic."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Jagdev, S., Hemen, D., Devendra, K., Dumitru, B., and Jordan, H. (2022). Methods of Mathematical Modelling and Computation for Complex Systems, Springer. [1st ed.]."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bhaskaran, S., Verma, A.S., Goupee, A.J., Bhattacharya, S., Nejad, A.R., and Shi, W. (2023). Comparison of extreme wind and waves using different statistical methods in 40 offshore wind energy lease areas worldwide. Energies, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/en16196935"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"921","DOI":"10.1177\/0309524X20936201","article-title":"Statistical extrapolation methods for estimating extreme loads on wind turbine blades under turbulent wind conditions and stochastic material properties","volume":"45","author":"Schinas","year":"2021","journal-title":"Wind. Eng."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhou, K., Cherukuru, N., Sun, X., and Calhoun, R. (2018). Wind gust detection and impact prediction for wind turbines. Remote Sens., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs10040514"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1109\/99.388960","article-title":"An introduction to wavelets","volume":"2","author":"Graps","year":"1995","journal-title":"IEEE Comput. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"World Meteorological Organization (2018). Guide to Meteorological Instruments and Methods of Observation, Volume I: Measurement of Meteorological Variables, World Meteorological Organization. WMO-No. 8."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"477","DOI":"10.5194\/wes-6-477-2021","article-title":"Investigating the loads and performance of a model horizontal axis wind turbine under reproducible IEC extreme operational conditions","volume":"6","author":"Shirzadeh","year":"2021","journal-title":"Wind Energy Sci."}],"container-title":["Computation"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-3197\/13\/11\/268\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,13]],"date-time":"2025-11-13T10:22:02Z","timestamp":1763029322000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-3197\/13\/11\/268"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,13]]},"references-count":36,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11]]}},"alternative-id":["computation13110268"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/computation13110268","relation":{},"ISSN":["2079-3197"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2079-3197","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,13]]}}}