{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,22]],"date-time":"2026-02-22T10:58:15Z","timestamp":1771757895822,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":24,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,1]],"date-time":"2025-12-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1764547200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Computation"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This study examines the flow behavior of water-lubricated heavy oil transport utilizing the core annular flow (CAF) technique. The goal is to enhance efficiency and minimize risks in pipeline operations. The flow was numerically simulated in a horizontal pipe using a Large Eddy Simulation (LES) model within a commercial Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) framework. The Geo Reconstruct scheme is employed to accurately capture the oil\u2013water interface, and both oil and water initialization methods were assessed against experimental data. Results show that the LES model accurately reproduces the main flow features observed experimentally, particularly for low-viscosity oil\u2013water systems. This suggests that the model can be a reliable tool for predicting flow behaviour in similar fluid systems. Further validation with varying parameters could enhance its applicability across a broader range of conditions. In cases of heavy oil, the velocity profile remains nearly constant within the oil core, indicating rigid body-like motion surrounded by a turbulent water annulus. Turbulence intensity and oil volume fraction distributions were closely related, with higher turbulence in water and lower in oil. Although wall adhesion modelling limited fouling prediction, simulations confirmed that fouling can significantly increase pressure losses. This illustrates the value of considering both fluid dynamics and material interactions in such systems. Future studies could explore the impact of varying temperature and pressure conditions on fouling behaviour to further refine predictive models. Overall, the LES approach proved suitable for analysing turbulent CAF, offering insights for optimizing viscosity ratios, flow rates, and design parameters for safer and more efficient heavy oil transport.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/computation13120280","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,2]],"date-time":"2025-12-02T15:31:17Z","timestamp":1764689477000},"page":"280","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Numerical Investigations of Water-Lubricated Core Annular Flow (CAF) for Heavy Oil Transportation"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-2958-4790","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Salim Al","family":"Jadidi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Mechanical and Chemical Engineering Unit, University of Technology and Applied Sciences, P.O. Box 74, Muscat 133, Oman"}]},{"given":"Dadapeer","family":"Doddamani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Mechanical and Chemical Engineering Unit, University of Technology and Applied Sciences, P.O. Box 74, Muscat 133, Oman"}]},{"given":"Yahya Ubaid Al","family":"Shamsi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Mechanical and Chemical Engineering Unit, University of Technology and Applied Sciences, P.O. Box 74, Muscat 133, Oman"}]},{"given":"Ibrahim Nasser Al","family":"Siyabi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Mechanical and Chemical Engineering Unit, University of Technology and Applied Sciences, P.O. Box 74, Muscat 133, Oman"}]},{"given":"Siva","family":"Subramanian","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Mechanical and Chemical Engineering Unit, University of Technology and Applied Sciences, P.O. Box 74, Muscat 133, Oman"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1002\/cjce.5450390106","article-title":"The horizontal pipeline flow of equal density of oil\u2013water mixtures","volume":"39","author":"Charles","year":"1961","journal-title":"Can. J. Chem. Eng."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lyman, T., Piper, E., and Riddell, A. (1984, January 11\u201313). Heavy oil mining technical and economic analysis. Proceedings of the SPE California Regional Meeting, Long Beach, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.2523\/12788-MS"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"274","DOI":"10.1016\/j.petrol.2010.11.020","article-title":"Transportation of heavy and extra-heavy crude oil by pipeline: A review","volume":"75","author":"Aburto","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Pet. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guevara, E., Ninez, G., and Gonzalez, J. (1997, January 12\u201317). Highly viscous oil transportation methods in the Venezuelan oil industry. Proceedings of the 15th World Petroleum Congress, Beijing, China.","DOI":"10.1016\/S1359-6128(97)82839-X"},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Kim, K., and Choi, H. (July, January 30). Characteristics of turbulent core-annular flows in a vertical pipe. Proceedings of the International Symposium on Turbulence Flow Phenomena, Melbourne, Australia."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Lo, S., and Tomasello, A. (2010, January 2\u20134). Recent progress in CFD modelling of multiphase flow in horizontal and near-horizontal pipes. Proceedings of the 7th North American Conference on Multiphase Technology, Banff, AB, Canada."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jiang, F., Chang, J., Huang, H., and Huang, J. (2022). A Study of the Interface Fluctuation and Energy Saving of Oil\u2013Water Annular Flow. Energies, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/en15062123"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Al Jadidi, S., Moolya, S., and Satheesh, A. (2023). Analysis of Core Annular Flow Behavior of Water-Lubricated Heavy Crude Oil Transport. Fluids, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/fluids8100267"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xie, B., Jiang, F., Lin, H., Zhang, M., Gui, Z., and Xiang, J. (2023). Review of Core Annular Flow. Energies, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/en16031496"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yin, X., Li, J., Wen, M., Dong, X., You, X., Su, M., Zeng, P., Jing, J., and Sun, J. (2023). Study on the Hydrodynamic Performance and Stability Characteristics of Oil\u2013Water Annular Flow through a 90\u00b0 Elbow Pipe. Sustainability, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/su15086785"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lv, G., and He, L. (2024). Oil\u2013Water Two-Phase Flow with Three Different Crude Oils: Flow Structure, Droplet Size and Viscosity. Energies, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/en17071573"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"A19","DOI":"10.1017\/jfm.2024.345","article-title":"Characteristics of Turbulent Core\u2013Annular Flow with Water-Lubricated High Viscosity Oil in a Horizontal Pipe","volume":"986","author":"Kim","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Fluid Mech."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Jadidi, A., and Saleh, S.J. (2017). Lubricated Transport of Heavy Oil Investigated by CFD. [Ph.D. Thesis, University of Leicester]. Available online: https:\/\/hdl.handle.net\/2381\/40986."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Versteeg, H.K., and Malalasekera, W. (2007). An Introduction to Computational Fluid Dynamics: The Finite Volume Method, Pearson Education Ltd."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Liu, C., and Liu, Z. (1997). Large-eddy simulations: Where we stand. Advances in DNS\/LES, AFOSR."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Sagaut, P. (2006). Large Eddy Simulation for Incompressible Flows: An Introduction, Springer."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ferziger, J.H., and Peri\u0107, M. (2002). Computational Methods for Fluid Dynamics, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-56026-2"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijmultiphaseflow.2009.08.007","article-title":"Oil-water flow through sudden contraction and expansion in a horizontal pipe-phase distribution and pressure drop","volume":"1","author":"Balakhrisna","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. Multiph. Flow"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"341","DOI":"10.1017\/S0022112082001116","article-title":"Numerical Investigation of Turbulent Channel Flow","volume":"118","author":"Moin","year":"1982","journal-title":"J. Fluid Mech."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1063\/1.2775521","article-title":"Core annular flow through a horizontal pipe: Hydrodynamic counter balancing of buoyancy force on core","volume":"19","author":"Ooms","year":"2007","journal-title":"Phys. Fluids"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"663","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevE.68.066301","article-title":"Stationary core annular flow through a horizontal pipe","volume":"68","author":"Ooms","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Phys. Rev. E"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijmultiphaseflow.2012.01.012","article-title":"Numerical study of eccentric core annular flow","volume":"42","author":"Ooms","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Multiph. Flow"},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Zhang, H.-Q., Sridhar, S., Sarica, C., and Pereyra, E.J. (November, January 30). Experiments and model assessment on high-viscosity oil\/water inclined pipe flows. Proceedings of the SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Denver, CO, USA."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"243","DOI":"10.2118\/135099-PA","article-title":"Modeling high-viscosity oil\/water concurrent flow in horizontal and vertical pipes","volume":"17","author":"Zhang","year":"2012","journal-title":"SPE J."}],"container-title":["Computation"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-3197\/13\/12\/280\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,2]],"date-time":"2025-12-02T16:00:43Z","timestamp":1764691243000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-3197\/13\/12\/280"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,1]]},"references-count":24,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12]]}},"alternative-id":["computation13120280"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/computation13120280","relation":{},"ISSN":["2079-3197"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2079-3197","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,1]]}}}