{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,4]],"date-time":"2026-05-04T12:13:24Z","timestamp":1777896804243,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":56,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,1]],"date-time":"2026-02-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1769904000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Key R&D Program of Shandong Province","award":["2022TZXD0033"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022TZXD0033"]}]},{"name":"Shandong Agricultural Industry Technology System","award":["SDAIT-07-17"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SDAIT-07-17"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Computation"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Accurate and non-destructive assessment of plant nutritional status remains a key challenge in precision agriculture, particularly under dynamic physiological conditions such as dehydration. Therefore, this study focused on developing an integrated nutritional assessment framework for avocado (Persea americana Mill.) leaves across progressive dehydration stages using spectral analysis. A novel nutritional function index (NFI) was innovatively constructed using an entropy-weighted multi-criteria decision-making approach. This unified assessment metric integrated critical physiological indicators, such as moisture content, nitrogen content, and chlorophyll content estimated from soil and plant analyzer development (SPAD) readings. To enhance the prediction accuracy and interpretability of NFI, innovative vegetation indices (VIs) specifically tailored to NFI were systematically constructed using exhaustive wavelength-combination screening. Optimal wavelengths identified from short-wave infrared regions (1446, 1455, 1465, 1865, and 1937 nm) were employed to build physiologically meaningful VIs, which were highly sensitive to moisture and biochemical constituents. Feature wavelengths selected via the successive projections algorithm and competitive adaptive reweighted sampling further reduced spectral redundancy and improved modeling efficiency. Both feature-level and algorithm-level data fusion methods effectively combined VIs and selected feature wavelengths, significantly enhancing prediction performance. The stacking algorithm demonstrated robust performance, achieving the highest predictive accuracy (R2V = 0.986, RMSEV = 0.032) for NFI estimation. This fusion-based modeling approach outperformed conventional single-model schemes in terms of accuracy and robustness. Unlike previous studies that focused on isolated spectral predictors, this work introduces an integrative framework combining entropy-weighted feature synthesis and multiscale fusion learning. The developed strategy offers a powerful tool for real-time plant health monitoring and supports precision agricultural decision-making.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/computation14020033","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,2]],"date-time":"2026-02-02T12:49:44Z","timestamp":1770036584000},"page":"33","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Integrative Nutritional Assessment of Avocado Leaves Using Entropy-Weighted Spectral Indices and Fusion Learning"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Zhen","family":"Guo","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Pharmaceutical Science and Food Engineering, Liaocheng University, Liaocheng 252059, China"},{"name":"Shandong Key Laboratory of Applied Technology for Protein and Peptide Drugs, Liaocheng 252059, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Juan Sebastian","family":"Estrada","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electronic Engineering, Universidad T\u00e9cnica Federico Santa Mar\u00eda, Av. Espa\u00f1a 1680, Valparaiso 2390123, Chile"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Xingfeng","family":"Guo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Pharmaceutical Science and Food Engineering, Liaocheng University, Liaocheng 252059, China"},{"name":"Shandong Key Laboratory of Applied Technology for Protein and Peptide Drugs, Liaocheng 252059, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Redmond R.","family":"Shamshiri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Agromechatronics, Leibniz-Institut f\u00fcr Agrartechnik und Bio\u00f6konomie e.V., Max-Eyth-Allee 100, 14469 Potsdam, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Marcelo","family":"Pereyra","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Mathematical and Computer Science, Heriot-Watt University & Maxwell Institute for Mathematical Sciences, Edinburgh EH14 4AS, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Fernando","family":"Auat Cheein","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electronic Engineering, Universidad T\u00e9cnica Federico Santa Mar\u00eda, Av. Espa\u00f1a 1680, Valparaiso 2390123, Chile"},{"name":"Department of Agricultural Engineering, Harper Adams University, Newport TF10 8NB, Shropshire, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"738","DOI":"10.1080\/10408398.2011.556759","article-title":"Hass Avocado Composition and Potential Health Effects","volume":"53","author":"Dreher","year":"2013","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Food Sci. 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