{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,24]],"date-time":"2025-10-24T08:29:11Z","timestamp":1761294551642,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":30,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,12]],"date-time":"2022-12-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1670803200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001871","name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e Tecnologia","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2022.08786.PTDC","UIDB\/50008\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022.08786.PTDC","UIDB\/50008\/2020"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001871","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Computers"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Network analytics provide a comprehensive picture of the network\u2019s Quality of Service (QoS), including the End-to-End (E2E) delay. In this paper, we characterize the Core and the Radio Access Network (RAN) E2E delay of 5G networks with the Standalone (SA) and Non-Standalone (NSA) topologies when a single known Probability Density Function (PDF) is not suitable to model its distribution. To this end, multiple PDFs, denominated as components, are combined in a Gaussian Mixture Model (GMM) to represent the distribution of the E2E delay. The accuracy and computation time of the GMM is evaluated for a different number of components and a number of samples. The results presented in the paper are based on a dataset of E2E delay values sampled from both SA and NSA 5G networks. Finally, we show that the GMM can be adopted to estimate a high diversity of E2E delay patterns found in 5G networks and its computation time can be adequate for a large range of applications.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/computers11120184","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,12]],"date-time":"2022-12-12T05:42:00Z","timestamp":1670823720000},"page":"184","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["Estimation of 5G Core and RAN End-to-End Delay through Gaussian Mixture Models"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8446-1557","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Diyar","family":"Fadhil","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Departamento de Engenharia Electrot\u00e9cnica e de Computadores, Faculdade de Ci\u00eancias e Tecnologia, FCT, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, 2829-516 Caparica, Portugal"},{"name":"Instituto de Telecomunicacoes, 1049-001 Lisbon, Portugal"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9181-8438","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rodolfo","family":"Oliveira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departamento de Engenharia Electrot\u00e9cnica e de Computadores, Faculdade de Ci\u00eancias e Tecnologia, FCT, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, 2829-516 Caparica, Portugal"},{"name":"Instituto de Telecomunicacoes, 1049-001 Lisbon, Portugal"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"1","article-title":"Leading the IoT Gartner Insights on How to Lead in a Connected World","volume":"1","author":"Hung","year":"2017","journal-title":"Gart. 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