{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,26]],"date-time":"2026-02-26T16:02:12Z","timestamp":1772121732962,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":48,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,12]],"date-time":"2023-06-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1686528000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"NSTC, Taiwan","award":["111-2410-H-167 -005 -MY2"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["111-2410-H-167 -005 -MY2"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Computers"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In today\u2019s digital age, ensuring the secure transmission of confidential data through various means of communication is crucial. Protecting the data from malicious attacks during transmission poses a significant challenge. To achieve this, reversible data hiding (RDH) and encryption methods are often used in combination to safeguard confidential data from intruders. However, existing secure reversible hybrid hiding techniques are facing challenges related to low data embedding capacity. To address these challenges, the proposed research presents a solution that utilizes block-wise encryption and a two-layer embedding scheme to enhance the embedding capacity of the cover image. Additionally, this technique incorporates a blockchain-enabled RDH method to ensure traceability and integrity by storing confidential data alongside the hash value of the stego image. The proposed work is divided into three phases. First, the cover image is encrypted. Second, the data are embedded in the encrypted cover image using a two-layer embedding scheme. Finally, the stego image along with the hash value are deployed through blockchain technology. The proposed method reduces challenges associated with traceability and integrity while increasing the embedding capacity of images compared to traditional methods.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/computers12060120","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,13]],"date-time":"2023-06-13T01:35:30Z","timestamp":1686620130000},"page":"120","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["High-Capacity Reversible Data Hiding Based on Two-Layer Embedding Scheme for Encrypted Image Using Blockchain"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"given":"Arun Kumar","family":"Rai","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Indian Institute of Technology, Indian School of Mines, Dhanbad 826004, India"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Hari","family":"Om","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Indian Institute of Technology, Indian School of Mines, Dhanbad 826004, India"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Satish","family":"Chand","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Computer & Systems Science, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi 110067, India"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4480-7351","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Chia-Chen","family":"Lin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Science and Information Engineering, National Chin-Yi University of Technology, Taichung 411030, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"354","DOI":"10.1109\/TCSVT.2006.869964","article-title":"Reversible data hiding","volume":"16","author":"Ni","year":"2006","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Circuits Syst. Video Technol."},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"495","article-title":"Improved lossless data hiding for jpeg images based on histogram modification","volume":"55","author":"Du","year":"2018","journal-title":"Comput. Mater. Contin."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3703","DOI":"10.1002\/sec.1575","article-title":"Reversible data hiding based on prediction error expansion using adjacent pixels","volume":"9","author":"Kumar","year":"2016","journal-title":"Secur. Commun. Netw."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"315","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sigpro.2016.02.001","article-title":"Reversible data hiding by adaptive group modification on histogram of prediction errors","volume":"125","author":"Rad","year":"2016","journal-title":"Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"185","article-title":"Lossless data embedding\u2014New paradigm in digital watermarking","volume":"2","author":"Fridrich","year":"2002","journal-title":"URASIP J. Appl. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"253","DOI":"10.1109\/TIP.2004.840686","article-title":"Lossless generalized-LSB data embedding","volume":"14","author":"Celik","year":"2005","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Image Process."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"Honsinger, C., Jones, P., and Rabbani, M. (2001). Lossless Recovery of an Original Image Containing Embedded Data. (#6278791), U.S. Patent."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15803","DOI":"10.1007\/s11042-017-5156-1","article-title":"Recovery based high capacity reversible data hiding scheme using even-odd embedding","volume":"77","author":"Malik","year":"2018","journal-title":"Multimed. Tools Appl."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"241","DOI":"10.1007\/s11042-014-2289-3","article-title":"A reversible high capacity data hiding scheme using pixel value adjusting feature","volume":"75","author":"Kumar","year":"2016","journal-title":"Multimed. Tools Appl."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"890","DOI":"10.1109\/TCSVT.2003.815962","article-title":"Reversible data embedding using a difference expansion","volume":"13","author":"Tian","year":"2003","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Circuits Syst. Video Technol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1147","DOI":"10.1109\/TIP.2004.828418","article-title":"Reversible Watermark Using the Difference Expansion of a Generalized Integer Transform","volume":"13","author":"Alattar","year":"2004","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Image Process."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"721","DOI":"10.1109\/TIP.2006.891046","article-title":"Expansion Embedding Techniques for Reversible Watermarking","volume":"16","author":"Thodi","year":"2007","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Image Process."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"437","DOI":"10.1109\/26.585919","article-title":"Context-based, adaptive, lossless image coding","volume":"45","author":"Wu","year":"1997","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Commun."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2082","DOI":"10.1109\/TIP.2005.859373","article-title":"Reversible data embedding into images using wavelet techniques and sorting","volume":"14","author":"Kamstra","year":"2005","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Image Process."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5010","DOI":"10.1109\/TIP.2013.2281422","article-title":"Pairwise Prediction-Error Expansion for Efficient Reversible Data Hiding","volume":"22","author":"Ou","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Image Process."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2176","DOI":"10.1109\/TCSVT.2018.2859792","article-title":"Improving Pairwise PEE via Hybrid-Dimensional Histogram Generation and Adaptive Mapping Selection","volume":"29","author":"Ou","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Circuits Syst. Video Technol."},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"2199","article-title":"Robust lossless image data hiding","volume":"3","author":"Ni","year":"2005","journal-title":"IEEE Int. Conf. Multimed. Expo"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"497","DOI":"10.1109\/TCSVT.2008.918761","article-title":"Robust Lossless Image Data Hiding Designed for Semi-Fragile Image Authentication","volume":"18","author":"Ni","year":"2008","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Circuits Syst. Video Technol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1002","DOI":"10.1049\/iet-ipr.2017.0151","article-title":"Reversible data hiding scheme based on significant-bit-difference expansion","volume":"11","author":"Wang","year":"2017","journal-title":"IET Image Process."},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"199","article-title":"A high capacity reversible data hiding scheme for encrypted covers based on histogram shifting","volume":"47","author":"Zhang","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Inf. Secur. Appl."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"826","DOI":"10.1109\/TIFS.2011.2176120","article-title":"Separable reversible data hiding in encrypted image","volume":"7","author":"Zhang","year":"2012","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Inf. Secur."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"553","DOI":"10.1109\/TIFS.2013.2248725","article-title":"Reversible data hiding in encrypted images by reserving room before encryption","volume":"8","author":"Ma","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Inf. Secur."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1132","DOI":"10.1109\/TCYB.2015.2423678","article-title":"High Capacity Reversible Data Hiding in Encrypted Images by Patch-Level Sparse Representation","volume":"46","author":"Cao","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Cybern."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11591","DOI":"10.1007\/s11042-019-08460-w","article-title":"A reversible data hiding in encrypted image based on prediction- error estimation and location map","volume":"79","author":"Malik","year":"2020","journal-title":"Multimed. Tools Appl."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sigpro.2018.04.008","article-title":"A high capacity reversible data hiding scheme based on right-left shift","volume":"150","author":"Wang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"142947","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2019.2941500","article-title":"Reversible Data Hiding Scheme Based on Quad-Tree and Pixel Value Ordering","volume":"7","author":"Li","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aziz, F., Ahmad, T., Malik, A.H., Uddin, M.I., Ahmad, S., and Sharaf, M. (2020). Reversible data hiding techniques with high message embedding capacity in images. PLoS ONE, 15.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0231602"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"144","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ins.2016.05.030","article-title":"Reversible data hiding based on an adaptive pixel-embedding strategy and two-layer embedding","volume":"369","author":"Weng","year":"2016","journal-title":"Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jvcir.2016.09.016","article-title":"Reversible data hiding based on flexible block-partition and adaptive block-modification strategy","volume":"41","author":"Weng","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Vis. Commun. Image Represent."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"68191E","DOI":"10.1117\/12.766754","article-title":"A reversible data hiding method for encrypted images","volume":"Volume 6819","author":"Puech","year":"2008","journal-title":"Proceedings of the Security, Forensics, Steganography, and Watermarking of Multimedia Contents X"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"SGao, Yu, T., Zhu, J., and Cai, W. (2019). T-PBFT: An EigenTrust-based practical Byzantine fault tolerance consensus algorithm. China Commun., 16, 111\u2013123.","DOI":"10.23919\/JCC.2019.12.008"},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Nakamoto, S. (2008). Bitcoin: A peer-to-peer electronic cash system. Decentralized Bus. Rev., 21260."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Atzei, N., Bartoletti, M., and Cimoli, T. (2017). International Conference on Principles of Security and Trust, Springer."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1027","DOI":"10.1109\/TPDS.2009.134","article-title":"SocioNet: A social-based multimedia access system for unstructured P2P networks","volume":"21","author":"Ha","year":"2010","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Parallel Distrib. Syst."},{"key":"ref_35","first-page":"2092","article-title":"Research progress of blockchain technology and its application in information security","volume":"29","author":"Liu","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Softw."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kosba, A., Miller, A., Shi, E., Wen, Z., and Papamanthou, C. (2016). Hawk: The Blockchain Model of Cryptography and Privacy-Preserving Smart Contracts. IEEE Symp. Secur. Priv., 839\u2013858.","DOI":"10.1109\/SP.2016.55"},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"(2023, February 12). Monero: A Note on Chain Reactions in Traceability in Cryptonote 2.0 (2017). Available online: https:\/\/lab.getmonero.org\/pubs\/MRL-0001.pdf."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"401","DOI":"10.1136\/jnnp.2003.018085","article-title":"Predicting functional outcome in acute stroke: Comparison of a simple six variable model with other predictive systems and informal clinical prediction","volume":"75","author":"Counsell","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"Neisse, R., Steri, G., and Nai-Fovino, I. (September, January 29). A Blockchain-based Approach for Data Accountability and Provenance Tracking. Proceedings of the 12th International Conference on Availability, Reliability and Security, Benevento, Italy."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8623","DOI":"10.1007\/s11042-022-14221-z","article-title":"Multimedia information hiding method for AMBTC compressed images using LSB substitution technique","volume":"82","author":"Kumar","year":"2022","journal-title":"Multimed. Tools Appl."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kumar, N., Kumar, R., Malik, A., Singh, S., and Jung, K.-H. (2023). Reversible data hiding with high visual quality using pairwise PVO and PEE. Multimed. Tools Appl., 1\u201326.","DOI":"10.1007\/s11042-023-14867-3"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109246","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ress.2023.109246","article-title":"Federated multi-source domain adversarial adaptation framework for machinery fault diagnosis with data privacy","volume":"236","author":"Zhao","year":"2023","journal-title":"Reliab. Eng. Syst. Saf."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110203","DOI":"10.1016\/j.knosys.2022.110203","article-title":"A novel conditional weighting transfer Wasserstein auto-encoder for rolling bearing fault diagnosis with multi-source domains","volume":"262","author":"Zhao","year":"2023","journal-title":"Knowl.-Based Syst."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Brahma, S.R., Singh, S., Gupta, D.K., and Malik, A. (2022). A reversible data hiding technique using lower magnitude error channel pair selection. Multimed. Tools Appl., 1\u201322.","DOI":"10.1007\/s11042-022-13554-z"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3517","DOI":"10.1007\/s11831-020-09512-3","article-title":"A Comprehensive Study of Reversible Data Hiding (RDH) Schemes Based on Pixel Value Ordering (PVO)","volume":"28","author":"Kaur","year":"2020","journal-title":"Arch. Comput. Methods Eng."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1096","DOI":"10.1049\/ipr2.12212","article-title":"High-quality reversible data hiding scheme using sorting and enhanced pairwise PEE","volume":"16","author":"Kaur","year":"2021","journal-title":"IET Image Process."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35027","DOI":"10.1007\/s11042-021-10832-0","article-title":"Low bandwidth data hiding for multimedia systems based on bit redundancy","volume":"81","author":"Kumar","year":"2021","journal-title":"Multimed. Tools Appl."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9943402","DOI":"10.1155\/2021\/9943402","article-title":"Blockchain-Based Reversible Data Hiding for Securing Medical Images","volume":"2021","author":"Horng","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Health Eng."}],"container-title":["Computers"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-431X\/12\/6\/120\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T19:53:13Z","timestamp":1760125993000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-431X\/12\/6\/120"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,12]]},"references-count":48,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,6]]}},"alternative-id":["computers12060120"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/computers12060120","relation":{},"ISSN":["2073-431X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2073-431X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,12]]}}}