{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,22]],"date-time":"2026-01-22T18:52:31Z","timestamp":1769107951694,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":53,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,10]],"date-time":"2024-04-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1712707200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Ministry of Science and Innovation","award":["POD2020-117111RB-I00"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["POD2020-117111RB-I00"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Computers"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Neurophysiological measures have been used in the field of education to improve our knowledge about the cognitive processes underlying learning. Furthermore, the combined use of different neuropsychological measures has deepened our understanding of these processes. The main objective of this systematic review is to provide a comprehensive picture of the use of integrated multichannel records in higher education. The bibliographic sources for the review were Web of Science, PsycINFO, Scopus, and Psicodoc databases. After a screening process by two independent reviewers, 10 articles were included according to prespecified inclusion criteria. In general, integrated recording of eye tracking and electroencephalograms were the most commonly used metrics, followed by integrated recording of eye tracking and electrodermal activity. Cognitive load was the most widely investigated learning-related cognitive process using integrated multichannel records. To date, most research has focused only on one neurophysiological measure. Furthermore, to our knowledge, no study has systematically investigated the use of integrated multichannel records in higher education. This systematic review provides a comprehensive picture of the current use of integrated multichannel records in higher education. Its findings may help design innovative educational programs, particularly in the online context. The findings provide a basis for future research and decision making regarding the use of integrated multichannel records in higher education.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/computers13040096","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,11]],"date-time":"2024-04-11T03:29:04Z","timestamp":1712806144000},"page":"96","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["The Use of Integrated Multichannel Records in Learning Studies in Higher Education: A Systematic Review of the Last 10 Years"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1481-7172","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Irene","family":"Gonz\u00e1lez-D\u00edez","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Departament of Health Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Burgos, Paseo Comendadores s\/n Burgos, 09001 Burgos, Spain"},{"name":"DATAHES Research Group, Consolidated Research Unit N\u00ba. 348, Universidad de Burgos, 09001 Burgos, Spain"}]},{"given":"Carmen","family":"Varela","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departament of Health Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Burgos, Paseo Comendadores s\/n Burgos, 09001 Burgos, Spain"},{"name":"Departament of Psychobiology and Clinical Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, University of Barcelona, 08035 Barcelona, Spain"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1736-2089","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mar\u00eda Consuelo","family":"S\u00e1iz-Manzanares","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departament of Health Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Burgos, Paseo Comendadores s\/n Burgos, 09001 Burgos, Spain"},{"name":"DATAHES Research Group, Consolidated Research Unit N\u00ba. 348, Universidad de Burgos, 09001 Burgos, Spain"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Montenegro-Rueda, M., Fern\u00e1ndez-Cerero, J., Fern\u00e1ndez-Batanero, J.M., and L\u00f3pez-Meneses, E. (2023). Impact of the implementation of ChatGPT in education: A systematic review. Computers, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/computers12080153"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4363","DOI":"10.1007\/s10639-022-11372-2","article-title":"On enhancing students\u2019 cognitive abilities in online learning using brain activity and eye movements","volume":"28","author":"Jamil","year":"2023","journal-title":"Educ. Inf. Technol."},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"21","article-title":"An\u00e1lisis del estr\u00e9s, atenci\u00f3n, inter\u00e9s y conexi\u00f3n emocional en la ense\u00f1anza superior presencial y online: Un estudio neurotecnol\u00f3gico","volume":"76","author":"Gupta","year":"2023","journal-title":"Comun. Rev. Cient\u00edfica Iberoam. Comun. Educ."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"773328","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2021.773328","article-title":"Impacts of color coding on programming learning in multimedia learning: Moving toward a multimodal methodology","volume":"12","author":"Liu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"659","DOI":"10.1111\/bjet.13048","article-title":"Learning by explaining to oneself and a peer enhances learners\u2019 theta and alpha oscillations while watching video lectures","volume":"52","author":"Pi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Br. J. Educ. Technol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"413","DOI":"10.1007\/s40593-021-00256-0","article-title":"Neurophysiological measurements in higher education: A systematic literature review","volume":"32","author":"Darvishi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Artif. Intell. Educ."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134122","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2021.3115263","article-title":"Cognitive and affective brain\u2013computer interfaces for improving learning strategies and enhancing student capabilities: A systematic literature review","volume":"9","author":"Jamil","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110946","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jss.2021.110946","article-title":"Brain and automatic nervous system activity measurement in software engineering: A systematic literature revier","volume":"178","author":"Weber","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Syst. Softw."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"413","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2018.06.023","article-title":"A systematic review of eye tracking research on multimedia learning","volume":"125","author":"Alemdag","year":"2018","journal-title":"Comput. Educ."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s10648-020-09565-7","article-title":"Eye-tracking in educational practice: Investigating visual perception underlying teaching and learning in the classroom","volume":"33","author":"Jarodzka","year":"2021","journal-title":"Educ. Psychol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"41","article-title":"El procesamiento cognitivo en una app educativa con electroencefalograma y Eye Tracking","volume":"52","year":"2017","journal-title":"Comunicar"},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"1","article-title":"Use of Eye-Tracking Methodology for Learning in College Students: Systematic Review of Underlying Cognitive Processes","volume":"Volume 748","author":"Herrero","year":"2023","journal-title":"Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems (LNNS)"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Francisti, J., Balogh, Z., Reichel, J., Magdin, M., Koprda, \u0160., and Moln\u00e1r, G. (2020). Application experiences using IoT devices in education. Appl. Sci., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/app10207286"},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"1","article-title":"Using Eye Tracking Technology to Analyse Cognitive Load in Multichannel Activities in University Students","volume":"2023","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Hum.-Comput. Interact."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/3230632","article-title":"A survey on brain biometrics","volume":"51","author":"Gui","year":"2019","journal-title":"ACM Comput. Surv."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1186\/s40708-018-0092-z","article-title":"Mental state and emotion detection from musically stimulated EEG","volume":"5","author":"Tandle","year":"2018","journal-title":"Brain Inf."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.1109\/TLT.2022.3200394","article-title":"Development of a Computer-Aided Education System Inspired by Face-to-Face Learning by Incorporating EEG-Based Neurofeedback Into Online Video Lectures","volume":"16","author":"Kim","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Learn. Technol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ram\u00edrez-Moreno, M.A., D\u00edaz-Padilla, M., Valenzuela-G\u00f3mez, K.D., Vargas-Mart\u00ednez, A., Tud\u00f3n-Mart\u00ednez, J.C., Morales-Menendez, R., Ram\u00edrez-Mendoza, R.A., P\u00e9rez-Henr\u00edquez, B.L., and Lozoya-Santos, J.J. (2021). Eeg-based tool for prediction of university students\u2019 cognitive performance in the classroom. Brain Sci., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci11060698"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"388","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2017.00388","article-title":"Sustained attention in real classroom settings: An EEG study","volume":"11","author":"Ko","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Hum. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"100342","article-title":"A tale of two classes: Tourism students\u2019 cognitive loads and learning outcomes in face-to-face and online classes","volume":"29","author":"Hsu","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Hosp. Leis. Sport Tour. Educ."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1111\/mbe.12177","article-title":"Showing is knowing: The potential and challenges of using neurocognitive measures of implicit learning in the classroom","volume":"13","author":"Rowe","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mind Brain Educ."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"216","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chb.2018.11.027","article-title":"Effect of multitasking, physical environment and electroencephalography use on cognitive load and retention","volume":"92","author":"Akbulut","year":"2019","journal-title":"Comput. Hum. Behav."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2018.03.020","article-title":"Mental effort detection using EEG data in E-learning contexts","volume":"122","author":"Lin","year":"2018","journal-title":"Comput. Educ."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"389","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2017.00389","article-title":"Multisubject \u201clearning\u201d for mental workload classification using concurrent EEG, fNIRS, and physiological measures","volume":"11","author":"Liu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Hum. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/3368589","article-title":"Multimodal physiological signals for workload prediction in robot-assisted surgery","volume":"9","author":"Zhou","year":"2020","journal-title":"ACM Trans. Hum.-Robot. Interact."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2312","DOI":"10.1109\/TCSS.2022.3184818","article-title":"Privacy-preserving brain\u2013computer interfaces: A systematic review","volume":"10","author":"Xia","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Comput. Soc. Syst."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109736","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jneumeth.2022.109736","article-title":"A review of critical challenges in MI-BCI: From conventional to deep learning methods","volume":"383","author":"Khademi","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Neurosci. Methods"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103877","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brat.2021.103877","article-title":"Physiological and self-reported arousal in virtual reality versus face-to-face emotional activation and cognitive restructuring in university students: A crossover experimental study using wearable monitoring","volume":"142","author":"Bolinski","year":"2021","journal-title":"Behav. Res. Ther."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1007\/s11571-023-09930-6","article-title":"Detection of dynamic changes of electrodermal activity to predict the classroom performance of college students","volume":"18","author":"Yu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cogn. Neurodynam."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"567","DOI":"10.1007\/s10111-020-00641-0","article-title":"Towards measuring cognitive load through multimodal physiological data","volume":"23","author":"Vanneste","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cogn. Tech. Work"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jimenez-Molina, A., Retamal, C., and Lira, H. (2018). Using psychophysiological sensors to assess mental workload during web browsing. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18020458"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"S\u00e1iz-Manzanares, M.C., Rodr\u00edguez-D\u00edez, J.J., Marticorena, R., Zapara\u00edn, M.J., and Cerezo, R. (2020). Lifelong Learning from Sustainable Education: An Analysis with Eye Tracking and Data Mining Techniques. Sustainability, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/su12051970"},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"e62103","article-title":"Eye-tracking Technology and Data-mining Techniques used for a Behavioral Analysis of Adults engaged in Learning Processes","volume":"172","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Vis. Exp."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117021","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2020.117021","article-title":"Machine-learning-based diagnostics of EEG pathology","volume":"220","author":"Gemein","year":"2020","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"S\u00e1iz-Manzanares, M.C., Marticorena, R., and Arn\u00e1iz Gonz\u00e1lez, \u00c1. (2022). Improvements for therapeutic intervention from the use of web applications and machine learning techniques in different affectations in children aged 0\u20136 years. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph19116558"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2783","DOI":"10.1109\/TNSRE.2020.3048422","article-title":"Motion imagery-BCI based on EEG and eye movement data fusion","volume":"28","author":"Cheng","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Neural Syst. Rehabil. Eng."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1216648","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2023.1216648","article-title":"Non-invasive EEG-based BCI spellers from the beginning to today: A mini-review","volume":"17","author":"Maslova","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front. Hum. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1080\/0144929X.2023.2241559","article-title":"A scoping review of BCIs for learning regulation in mainstream educational contexts","volume":"2023","author":"Xia","year":"2023","journal-title":"Behav. Inf. Technol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1621","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clinph.2020.03.031","article-title":"Human brain connectivity: Clinical applications for clinical neurophysiology","volume":"131","author":"Hallett","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"340","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chb.2017.12.037","article-title":"Review on portable EEG technology in educational research","volume":"81","author":"Xu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Comput. Hum. Behav."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105906","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijsu.2021.105906","article-title":"The PRISMA 2020 statement: An updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews","volume":"88","author":"Page","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Surg."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"210","DOI":"10.1186\/s13643-016-0384-4","article-title":"Rayyan-a web and mobile app for systematic reviews","volume":"5","author":"Ouzzani","year":"2016","journal-title":"Syst. Rev."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Whiting, P., Rutjes, A.W., Reitsma, J.B., Bossuyt, P.M., and Kleijnen, J. (2003). The development of QUADAS: A tool for the quality assessment of studies of diagnostic accuracy included in systematic reviews. BMC Med. Res. Methodol., 3.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2288-3-25"},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"Aromataris, E., and Munn, Z. (2020). JBI Manual of Evidence Synthesis, Joanna Briggs Institute."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1097\/01.NAJ.0000451683.66447.89","article-title":"JBI\u2019s systematic reviews: Data extraction and synthesis","volume":"114","author":"Munn","year":"2014","journal-title":"AJN Am. J. Nurs."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xhafa, F., Patnaik, S., and Tavana, M. (2019). Advances in Intelligent, Interactive Systems and Applications, Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Intelligent, Interactive Systems and Applications (IISA2018), HongKong, China, 29\u201330 June 2018, Springer International Publishing.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-02804-6"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lim, C., Barragan, J.A., Farrow, J.M., Wachs, J.P., Sundaram, C.P., and Yu, D. (2023). Physiological Metrics of Surgical Difficulty and Multi-Task Requirement during Robotic Surgery Skills. Sensors, 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/s23094354"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1933","DOI":"10.1109\/TNSRE.2023.3263502","article-title":"ERP and Pupillometry Synchronization Analysis on Rapid Serial Visual Presentation of Words, Numbers, Pictures","volume":"31","author":"Luo","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Neural Syst. Rehabil. Eng."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1016\/j.learninstruc.2018.12.001","article-title":"Role of subjective and objective measures of cognitive processing during learning in explaining the spatial contiguity effect","volume":"61","author":"Makransky","year":"2019","journal-title":"Learn. Instr."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1322","DOI":"10.1080\/10494820.2020.1833042","article-title":"Relationship between objective and subjective cognitive load measurements in multimedia learning","volume":"31","author":"Ozel","year":"2023","journal-title":"Interact. Learn. Environ."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1219","DOI":"10.1109\/TNSRE.2023.3242771","article-title":"Brain Network Reorganization During Visual Search Task Revealed by a Network Analysis of Fixation-Related Potential","volume":"31","author":"Qian","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Neural Syst. Rehabil. Eng."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"176","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhtm.2022.10.005","article-title":"Virtual Reality images\u2019 impact on cognition and affect in hotel promotions: Application of self-reported and psycho-physiological measures","volume":"53","author":"Slevitch","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Hosp. Tour. Manag."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-58753-0_32","article-title":"Understanding Reading Comprehension in Multi-display Presenting System: Visual Distribution and Cognitive Effect","volume":"Volume 714","author":"Stephanidis","year":"2017","journal-title":"Communications in Computer and Information Science"}],"container-title":["Computers"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-431X\/13\/4\/96\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T14:26:00Z","timestamp":1760106360000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-431X\/13\/4\/96"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,10]]},"references-count":53,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,4]]}},"alternative-id":["computers13040096"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/computers13040096","relation":{},"ISSN":["2073-431X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2073-431X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,10]]}}}