{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,2]],"date-time":"2026-04-02T11:27:55Z","timestamp":1775129275973,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":48,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,18]],"date-time":"2024-11-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1731888000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Computers"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Public transportation is essential for improving urban mobility, enhancing travel quality, reducing reliance on private vehicles, and alleviating traffic congestion. However, inadequate public transportation in outer Melbourne is a significant issue limiting urban development. While existing research primarily focuses on walking distance to define service catchments, commuters in transit-disadvantaged or outlying urban areas often drive to transit, noted as the park-and-ride mode. This research uniquely examines drive-distance catchments for park-and-ride transit accessibility in outer Melbourne, using spatial SQL and GIS techniques to provide a detailed, multi-dimensional analysis of population coverage, parking capacity, and accessibility gaps. This approach fills a gap in the existing literature by offering adaptable insights and approaches to other outer urban areas with transit disadvantages. The findings underscore the necessity for targeted enhancements in public transportation in outer Melbourne: Most of the outer residents concentrate near the train stations, though significant spatial gaps exist; The general accessibility status of residential mesh blocks is found; Parking capacity varies with high tension found at certain stations. This study contributes insights to create more equitable and sustainable transportation systems by providing a detailed spatial analysis of current transit coverage and identifying critical gaps.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/computers13110299","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,18]],"date-time":"2024-11-18T13:03:14Z","timestamp":1731934994000},"page":"299","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Exploring Park and Ride: A Spatial Analysis of Transit Catchment in Outer Melbourne"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-4683-5499","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yanlin","family":"Chen","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Information Technology, Monash University, Clayton, VIC 3800, Australia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5884-1409","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kiki","family":"Adhinugraha","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Science and Information Technology, La Trobe University, Bundoora, VIC 3086, Australia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4859-6072","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Shiyang","family":"Lyu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Information Technology, Monash University, Clayton, VIC 3800, Australia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8862-3960","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"David","family":"Taniar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Information Technology, Monash University, Clayton, VIC 3800, Australia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bok, J., and Kwon, Y. (2016). Comparable Measures of Accessibility to Public Transport Using the General Transit Feed Specification. Sustainability, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/ifou-E007"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"386","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tra.2015.05.003","article-title":"Perceived accessibility, mobility, and connectivity of public transportation systems","volume":"77","author":"Cheng","year":"2015","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part Policy Pract."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"437","DOI":"10.1016\/0038-0121(73)90041-4","article-title":"Physical accessibility as a social indicator","volume":"7","author":"Wachs","year":"1973","journal-title":"Socio-Econ. Plan. Sci."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtrangeo.2016.06.019","article-title":"Public transport accessibility in metropolitan areas: A new approach incorporating population density","volume":"54","author":"Saghapour","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Transp. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtrangeo.2008.12.002","article-title":"Quantifying spatial gaps in public transport supply based on social needs","volume":"18","author":"Currie","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Transp. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Wulkan, A., and Henry, L. (1985, January 8\u201310). Evaluation of Light Rail Transit for Austin, Texas. Proceedings of the State-of-the-Art Report, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. ISSN: 0892-6891."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.3141\/2219-12","article-title":"Driving to Suburban Rail Stations: Understanding Variables that Affect Driving Distance and Station Demand","volume":"2219","author":"Vijayakumar","year":"2011","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Rec."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ulak, M.B., Ozguven, E.E., Horner, M.W., Weaver, L., Puente, J., Crute, J., Smith, D.J., Duncan, M., and Whitton, E. (2022). Ridership dynamics and characteristics of potential riders of a transit system: The SunRail of Central Florida. Transp. Res. Interdiscip. Perspect., 16.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trip.2022.100720"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tra.2003.10.006","article-title":"Factors Influencing Light-rail Station Boardings in the United States","volume":"38","author":"Kuby","year":"2004","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part A Policy Pract."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"162","DOI":"10.1177\/0739456X10385935","article-title":"To Park or to Develop: Trade-off in Rail Transit Passenger Demand","volume":"30","author":"Duncan","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Plan. Educ. Res."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"148","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tranpol.2012.11.014","article-title":"An analysis of park-and-ride provision at light rail stations across the US","volume":"25","author":"Duncan","year":"2013","journal-title":"Transp. Policy"},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Department of Transport and Planning (2024, May 05). Whole Fleet Vehicle Registration Snapshot by Postcode\u2014Victorian Government Data Directory, Available online: https:\/\/discover.data.vic.gov.au\/dataset\/whole-fleet-vehicle-registration-snapshot-by-postcode."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tranpol.2012.01.013","article-title":"Transport and social exclusion: Where are we now?","volume":"20","author":"Lucas","year":"2012","journal-title":"Transp. Policy"},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Australian Bureau of Statistics (2024, May 05). Australia\u2019s Journey to Work, Available online: https:\/\/www.abs.gov.au\/articles\/australias-journey-work."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alamri, S., Adhinugraha, K., Allheeib, N., and Taniar, D. (2023). GIS Analysis of Adequate Accessibility to Public Transportation in Metropolitan Areas. ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi12050180"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1026123329433","article-title":"A Coverage Model for Improving Public Transit System Accessibility and Expanding Access","volume":"123","author":"Murray","year":"2003","journal-title":"Ann. Oper. Res."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Adhinugraha, K., Taniar, D., Phan, T., and Beare, R. (2022). Predicting travel time within catchment area using Time Travel Voronoi Diagram (TTVD) and crowdsource map features. Inf. Process. Manag., 59.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2022.102922"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1241","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tra.2012.05.013","article-title":"The influence of individual\u2019s risk perception and attitudes on travel behavior","volume":"46","author":"Elias","year":"2012","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part A Policy Pract."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Australian Bureau of Statistics (2024, April 27). Digital Boundary Files, Available online: https:\/\/www.abs.gov.au\/statistics\/standards\/australian-statistical-geography-standard-asgs-edition-3\/jul2021-jun2026\/access-and-downloads\/digital-boundary-files."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tranpol.2014.02.002","article-title":"Transit and job accessibility: An empirical study of access to competitive clusters and regional growth strategies for enhancing transit accessibility","volume":"33","author":"Tilahun","year":"2014","journal-title":"Transp. Policy"},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Hurni, A. (2005, January 28\u201330). Transport and social exclusion in Western Sydney. Proceedings of the Transporting the Future: Transport in a Changing Environment: Conference Proceedings of the 28th Australasian Transport Research Forum, Sydney, Australia."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtrangeo.2013.09.007","article-title":"A measure of equity for public transit connectivity","volume":"33","author":"Welch","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Transp. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hine, J., and Mitchell, F. (2016). Transport Disadvantage and Social Exclusion: Exclusionary Mechanisms in Transport in Urban Scotland, Routledge.","DOI":"10.4324\/9781315235677"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-8462.2009.00549.x","article-title":"Australian Urban Transport and Social Disadvantage","volume":"42","author":"Currie","year":"2009","journal-title":"Aust. Econ. Rev."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"617","DOI":"10.1093\/comjnl\/bxq068","article-title":"Spatial Network RNN Queries in GIS","volume":"54","author":"Taniar","year":"2010","journal-title":"Comput. J."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1080\/07293682.2007.9982586","article-title":"A GIS-based land use and public transport accessibility indexing model","volume":"44","author":"Yigitcanlar","year":"2007","journal-title":"Aust. Plan."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Biswas, A., Adhinugraha, K., and Taniar, D. (2023). Comparative GIS Analysis of Public Transport Accessibility in Metropolitan Areas. Computers, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/computers12120260"},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"STM (2024, June 07). STM Launches Challenge Combining Public Transit, Physical Activity and Exploring the City. Available online: https:\/\/www.stm.info\/en\/press\/press-releases\/2021\/stm-launches-challenge-combining-public-transit\u2013physical-activity-and\u2013exploring-the-city."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Metro (2024, June 07). Who We Are|Metro Trains. Available online: https:\/\/www.metrotrains.com.au\/corporate\/who-we-are\/."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Infrastructure Australia (2024, April 27). (Outer Urban PT) Inner, Middle and Outer Sector Boundaries, Available online: https:\/\/data.gov.au\/data\/dataset\/outer-urban-pt-inner-middle-and-outer-sector-boundaries."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bissell, D. (2018). Transit Life: How Commuting Is Transforming Our Cities, MIT Press.","DOI":"10.7551\/mitpress\/11399.001.0001"},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Johnson, L.E. (2008). Geographic Information Systems in Water Resources Engineering, CRC Press."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2015.03.021","article-title":"The landslide database for Germany: Closing the gap at national level","volume":"249","author":"Damm","year":"2015","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"210","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoinf.2007.07.007","article-title":"Geospatial web services within a scientific workflow: Predicting marine mammal habitats in a dynamic environment","volume":"2","author":"Best","year":"2007","journal-title":"Ecol. Inform."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envsoft.2012.05.016","article-title":"A GIS decision support system for regional forest management to assess biomass availability for renewable energy production","volume":"38","author":"Zambelli","year":"2012","journal-title":"Environ. Model. Softw."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"785","DOI":"10.1068\/b3046","article-title":"Spatial Representation and Scale Impacts in Transit Service Assessment","volume":"31","author":"Horner","year":"2004","journal-title":"Environ. Plan. B Plan. Des."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"Australian Bureau of Statistics (2024, April 09). Census Mesh Block Counts, Available online: https:\/\/www.abs.gov.au\/census\/guide-census-data\/mesh-block-counts\/latest-release."},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"PTV (2024, April 27). PTV Metro Train Stations, Available online: https:\/\/discover.data.vic.gov.au\/dataset\/ptv-metro-train-stations."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"DataVic (2024, May 05). Vicmap Admin\u2014Postcode Polygon, Available online: https:\/\/www.data.vic.gov.au\/."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"OpenStreetMap Wiki (2024, March 24). Key:amenity\u2014OpenStreetMap Wiki. Available online: https:\/\/wiki.openstreetmap.org\/wiki\/Key:amenity."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"Australian Bureau of Statistics (2024, May 06). Australian Statistical Geography Standard (ASGS) Edition 3, Available online: https:\/\/www.abs.gov.au\/statistics\/standards\/australian-statistical-geography-standard-asgs-edition-3\/latest-release."},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"PTV (2024, June 07). About PTV, Available online: https:\/\/www.ptv.vic.gov.au\/footer\/about-ptv\/."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1186\/s12942-019-0170-3","article-title":"Incorporating geography into a new generalized theoretical and statistical framework addressing the modifiable areal unit problem","volume":"18","author":"Tuson","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Health Geogr."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1080\/00049182.2022.2059825","article-title":"Analysing geographic variation in lower urgency emergency department presentations using readily\u2014Available administrative boundaries and a novel spatial smoothing technique","volume":"53","author":"Kok","year":"2022","journal-title":"Aust. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tra.2013.05.001","article-title":"Accessibility evaluations of feeder transit services","volume":"52","author":"Chandra","year":"2013","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part A Policy Pract."},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"Spillar, R.J. (2024, June 29). Park-and-Ride Planning and Design Guidelines. Parsons Brinckerhoff Monograph 11, Available online: http:\/\/cdn.wspgroup.com\/8kzmue\/park-and-ride-planning-and-design-guidelines.pdf."},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"Waller, S., Grzybowska, H., Moylan, E., Jones, M., and Fields, S. (October, January 30). Investigating the transit-orientation of existing urban development around Melbourne trams compared to other public transport modes. Proceedings of the Australasian Transport Research Forum 2015 ATRF 2015, Sydney, Australia."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cervero, R., and Arrington, G.B. (2008). Effects of TOD on Housing, Parking, and Travel, National Academies Press.","DOI":"10.17226\/14179"}],"container-title":["Computers"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-431X\/13\/11\/299\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T16:34:49Z","timestamp":1760114089000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-431X\/13\/11\/299"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,18]]},"references-count":48,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,11]]}},"alternative-id":["computers13110299"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/computers13110299","relation":{},"ISSN":["2073-431X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2073-431X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,18]]}}}