{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,2]],"date-time":"2026-06-02T09:16:33Z","timestamp":1780391793244,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":43,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,8]],"date-time":"2025-01-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1736294400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Computers"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Blockchain technology is an emerging decentralized and distributed technology that can maintain data security. It has the potential to transform many sectors completely. The core component of blockchain networks is the consensus algorithm because its efficiency, security, and scalability depend on it. A consensus problem is a difficult and significant task that must be considered carefully in a blockchain network. It has several practical applications such as distributed computing, load balancing, and blockchain transaction validation. Even though a lot of consensus algorithms have been proposed, the majority of them require many computational and communication resources. Similarly, they also suffer from high latency and low throughput. In this work, we proposed a new consensus algorithm for consortium blockchain for a leader selection using the reputation value of nodes and the voting process to ensure high performance. A security analysis is conducted to demonstrate the security of the proposed algorithm. The outcomes show that the proposed algorithm provides a strong defense against the network nodes\u2019 abnormal behavior. The performance analysis is performed by using Hyperledger Fabric v2.1 and the results show that it performs better in terms of throughput, latency, CPU utilization, and communications costs than its rivals Trust-Varying Algo, FP-BFT, and Scalable and Trust-based algorithms.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/computers14010020","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,8]],"date-time":"2025-01-08T11:56:22Z","timestamp":1736337382000},"page":"20","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["Reputation-Based Leader Selection Consensus Algorithm with Rewards for Blockchain Technology"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Munir","family":"Hussain","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Computing, Kohat University of Science & Technology, Kohat 26000, Pakistan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3941-4617","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Amjad","family":"Mehmood","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Computing, Kohat University of Science & Technology, Kohat 26000, Pakistan"},{"name":"Secure Cyber Systems Research Group (CSCRG), WMG, University of Warwick, Coventry CV4 7AL, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2650-4149","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Muhammad Altaf","family":"Khan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Computing, Kohat University of Science & Technology, Kohat 26000, Pakistan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rabia","family":"Khan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Computing, Kohat University of Science & Technology, Kohat 26000, Pakistan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0862-0533","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jaime","family":"Lloret","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Integrated Management Coastal Research Institute, Universitat Politecnica de Valencia, Camino Vera s\/n, 46022 Valencia, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hellani, H., El Ghor, H., Samhat, A.E., and Maroun, C. (2018, January 14\u201316). On BlockChain Technology: Overview of Bitcoin and Future Insights. Proceedings of the IEEE International Multidisciplinary Conference on Engineering Technology, Beirut, Lebanon.","DOI":"10.1109\/IMCET.2018.8603029"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Puneeth, P., and Parthasarathy, G. (2021). A Comprehensive Survey on PrivacySecurity and Scalability Solutions for Block Chain Technology. Smart Intelligent Computing and Communication Technology, IOS Press.","DOI":"10.3233\/APC210031"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Irannezhad, E. (2020). The Architectural Design Requirements of a Blockchain-Based Port Community System. Logistics, 4.","DOI":"10.3390\/logistics4040030"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"012106","DOI":"10.1088\/1757-899X\/1055\/1\/012106","article-title":"Blockchain technology using consensus mechanism for IoT-based ehealthcare system","volume":"1055","author":"Arul","year":"2021","journal-title":"IOP Conf. Ser. Mater. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108674","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compeleceng.2023.108674","article-title":"Trust-based decentralized blockchain system with machine learning using Internet of agriculture things","volume":"108","author":"Saba","year":"2023","journal-title":"Comput. Electr. Eng."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e364","DOI":"10.1002\/spy2.364","article-title":"Physically secure and privacy-preserving blockchain enabled authentication scheme for internet of drones","volume":"7","author":"Subramani","year":"2024","journal-title":"Secur. Priv."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Khan, R., Mehmood, A., Iqbal, Z., Maple, C., and Epiphaniou, G. (2023). Security and Privacy in Connected Vehicle Cyber Physical System Using Zero Knowledge Succinct Non Interactive Argument of Knowledge over Blockchain. Appl. Sci., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/app13031959"},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Zheng, Z., Xie, S., Dai, H., Chen, X., and Wang, H. (2017, January 25\u201330). An Overview of Blockchain Technology: Architecture, Consensus, and Future Trends. Proceedings of the IEEE 6th International Congress on Big Data, Honolulu, HI, USA."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dhiman, T., Gulyani, V., and Bhushan, B. (2020). Application, Classification and System Requirements of Blockchain Technology. International Conference on Innovative Computing and Communication (ICICC), Shaheed Sukhdev College of Business Studies.","DOI":"10.2139\/ssrn.3600745"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102078","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cose.2020.102078","article-title":"A survey of empirical performance evaluation of permissioned blockchain platforms: Challenges and opportunities","volume":"100","author":"Dabbagh","year":"2021","journal-title":"Comput. Secur."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"142","DOI":"10.3991\/ijim.v14i15.15893","article-title":"Blockchain Technology Consensus Algorithms and Applications: A Survey","volume":"14","author":"Almajali","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Interact. Mob. Technol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alsunaidi, S.J., and Alhaidari, F.A. (2019, January 3\u20134). A Survey of Consensus Algorithms for Blockchain Technology. Proceedings of the International Conference on Computer and Information Sciences (ICCIS), Sakaka, Saudi Arabia.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCISci.2019.8716424"},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Du, M., Ma, X., Zhang, Z., Wang, X., and Chen, Q. (2017, January 5\u20138). A review on consensus algorithm of blockchain. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE International Conference on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics (SMC), Banff, AB, Canada."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chaudhry, N., and Yousaf, M. (2018, January 19\u201321). Consensus Algorithms in Blockchain: Comparative Analysis Challenges and Opportunities. Proceedings of the 12th International Conference on Open Source Systems and Technologies (ICOSST), Lahore, Pakistan.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICOSST.2018.8632190"},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"101","article-title":"A Survey about Consensus AlgorithmsUsed in Blockchain","volume":"14","author":"Nguyen","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Inf. Process. Syst."},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"27","article-title":"A Survey of Blockchain-Based Strategies for Healthcare","volume":"53","author":"Krishnamachari","year":"2020","journal-title":"ACM Comput. Surv."},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"6693731","article-title":"A Research Survey on Applications of Consensus Protocols in Blockchain","volume":"2021","author":"Kaur","year":"2021","journal-title":"Hindawi Secur. Commun. Netw."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xiong, H., Chen, M., Wu, C., Zhao, Y., and Yi, W. (2022). Research on Progress of Blockchain Consensus Algorithm: A Review on Recent Progress of Blockchain Consenss Algorithms. Future Internet, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/fi14020047"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s42400-023-00163-y","article-title":"Evolution of blockchain consensus algorithms: A review on the latest milestones of blockchain consensus algorithms","volume":"6","author":"Hussein","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cybersecurity"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12515","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-022-15282-8","article-title":"Research on PBFT consensus algorithm for grouping based on feature trust","volume":"12","author":"Wang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87665","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2020.2993759","article-title":"MBFT: A New Consensus Algorithm for Consortium Blockchain","volume":"8","author":"Du","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"182776","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2020.3029512","article-title":"Proof-of-event recording system for autonomous vehicles: A blockchain-based solution","volume":"8","author":"Guo","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2147","DOI":"10.1109\/TNSE.2021.3079415","article-title":"A performance-optimized consensus mechanism for consortium blockchains consisting of trust-varying nodes","volume":"8","author":"Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Netw. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7795","DOI":"10.1007\/s12652-023-04592-y","article-title":"Reputation Based Proof of Cooperation: An Efficient and Scalable Consensus Algorithm for Supply Chain Applications","volume":"14","author":"Sarfaraz","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Ambient. Intell. Humaniz. Comput."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"76114","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2022.3192426","article-title":"A derivative PBFT blockchain consensus algorithm with dual primary nodes based on separation of powers-DPNPBFT","volume":"10","author":"Yanhe","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1225","DOI":"10.1109\/TC.2019.2900648","article-title":"Repucoin: Your reputation is your power","volume":"68","author":"Yu","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Comput."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107367","DOI":"10.1016\/j.comnet.2020.107367","article-title":"Blockchain reputation-based consensus: A scalable and resilient mechanism for distributed mistrusting applications","volume":"179","author":"Reis","year":"2020","journal-title":"Comput. Networks"},{"key":"ref_28","first-page":"23","article-title":"Proof-of-Reputation: An Alternative Consensus Mechanism for Blockchain Systems","volume":"13","author":"Aluko","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Netw. Secur. Its Appl."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Uddin, M., Muzammal, M., Hameed, M.K., Javed, I.T., Alamri, B., and Crespi, N. (2021). CBCIoT: A consensus algorithm for blockchain-based IoT applications. Appl. Sci., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/app112211011"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2990","DOI":"10.1109\/TIFS.2022.3198860","article-title":"ACCORD: A scalable multileader consensus protocol for healthcare blockchain","volume":"17","author":"Bashar","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Inf. Forensics Secur."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87803","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2022.3186682","article-title":"Electronic health records sharing model based on blockchain with checkable state PBFT consensus algorithm","volume":"10","author":"Pang","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"341","DOI":"10.1016\/j.procs.2021.04.109","article-title":"An improved delegated proof of stake consensus algorithm","volume":"187","author":"Hu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Procedia Comput. Sci."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11440","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2023.3243189","article-title":"A Two-Stage PBFT Architecture With Trust and Reward Incentive Mechanism","volume":"10","author":"Qushtom","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Things J."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2497","DOI":"10.1109\/TVT.2022.3213226","article-title":"Design of Proof-of-Stake PBFT Algorithm for IoT Environments","volume":"72","author":"Misic","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2915","DOI":"10.1007\/s12083-023-01566-x","article-title":"BW-PBFT: Practical byzantine fault tolerance consensus algorithm based on credit bidirectionally waning","volume":"16","author":"Wang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Peer-to-Peer Netw. Appl."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, S., Zhang, R., Liu, C., Xu, C., and Wang, J. (2023). An improved PBFT consensus algorithm based on grouping and credit grading. Sci. Rep., 13.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-023-28856-x"},{"key":"ref_37","first-page":"8370","article-title":"Weighted Byzantine Fault Tolerance consensus algorithm for enhancing consortium blockchain efficiency and security","volume":"34","author":"Qin","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. King Saud Univ.-Comput. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1049\/blc2.12030","article-title":"FP-BFT: A fast pipeline Byzantine consensus algorithm","volume":"3","author":"Liu","year":"2023","journal-title":"IET Blockchain"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.11113\/aej.v14.20763","article-title":"Nthcmb: Design of an Efficient Novel Trust-Based Hybrid Consensus Model for Securing Blockchain Deployments","volume":"14","author":"Kapse","year":"2024","journal-title":"ASEAN Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Du, Z., Zhang, J., Fu, Y., Huang, M., Liu, L., and Li, Y. (2023). A scalable and trust-value-based consensus algorithm for internet of vehicles. Appl. Sci., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/app131910663"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4773","DOI":"10.1109\/TITS.2023.3341358","article-title":"Performance analysis of blockchain-enabled security and privacy algorithms in connected and autonomous vehicles: A comprehensive review","volume":"25","author":"Khan","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Intell. Transp. Syst."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hussain, M., Mehmood, A., Khan, M.A., Lloret, J., and Maple, C. (2024). Performance Optimized Leader Selection Consensus Algorithm for Consortium Blockchain Using Trust Values of Nodes. International Conference on Cooperative Design, Visualization and Engineering, Springer Nature.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-031-71315-6_27"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2205","DOI":"10.1007\/s12083-024-01654-6","article-title":"An optimal secure and reliable certificateless proxy signature for industrial internet of things","volume":"17","author":"Ullah","year":"2024","journal-title":"Peer-Peer Netw. Appl."}],"container-title":["Computers"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-431X\/14\/1\/20\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,8]],"date-time":"2025-10-08T10:25:13Z","timestamp":1759919113000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-431X\/14\/1\/20"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,8]]},"references-count":43,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,1]]}},"alternative-id":["computers14010020"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/computers14010020","relation":{},"ISSN":["2073-431X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2073-431X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,8]]}}}