{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,15]],"date-time":"2026-07-15T10:09:45Z","timestamp":1784110185160,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":212,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,21]],"date-time":"2025-08-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1755734400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Computers"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The rapid advancements in wireless technology and digital electronics have led to the widespread adoption of compact, intelligent devices in various aspects of daily life. These advanced systems possess the capability to sense environmental changes, process data, and communicate seamlessly within interconnected networks. Typically, such devices integrate low-power radio transmitters and multiple smart sensors, hence enabling efficient functionality across wide ranges of applications. Alongside these technological developments, the concept of the IoT has emerged as a transformative paradigm, facilitating the interconnection of uniquely identifiable devices through internet-based networks. This paper aims to provide a comprehensive exploration of sensor technologies, detailing their integral role within IoT frameworks and examining their impact on optimizing efficiency and service delivery in modern wireless communications systems. Also, it presents a thorough review of sensor technologies, current research trends, and the associated challenges in this evolving field, providing a detailed explanation of recent advancements and IoT-integrated sensor systems, with a particular emphasis on the fundamental architecture of sensors and their pivotal role in modern technological applications. It explores the core benefits of sensor technologies and delivers an in-depth classification of their fundamental types. Beyond reviewing existing developments, this study identifies key open research challenges and outlines prospective directions for future exploration, offering valuable insights for both academic researchers and industry professionals. Ultimately, this paper serves as an essential reference for understanding sensor technologies and their potential contributions to IoT-driven solutions. This study offers meaningful contributions to academic and industrial sectors, facilitating advancements in sensor innovation.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/computers14080342","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,21]],"date-time":"2025-08-21T15:19:02Z","timestamp":1755789542000},"page":"342","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":55,"title":["A Comprehensive Review of Sensor Technologies in IoT: Technical Aspects, Challenges, and Future Directions"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6439-0082","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sadiq H.","family":"Abdulhussain","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Engineering, University of Baghdad, Al-Jadriya, Baghdad 10071, Iraq"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4121-0843","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Basheera M.","family":"Mahmmod","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Engineering, University of Baghdad, Al-Jadriya, Baghdad 10071, Iraq"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-1511-3991","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Almuntadher","family":"Alwhelat","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Engineering, Al-Farabi University College, Baghdad 10022, Iraq"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7711-5389","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dina","family":"Shehada","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Engineering and IT, University of Dubai, Dubai 14143, United Arab Emirates"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zainab I.","family":"Shihab","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Engineering, University of Baghdad, Al-Jadriya, Baghdad 10071, Iraq"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5567-0448","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hala J.","family":"Mohammed","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Engineering, University of Baghdad, Al-Jadriya, Baghdad 10071, Iraq"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-4297-2130","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tuqa H.","family":"Abdulameer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Engineering, University of Baghdad, Al-Jadriya, Baghdad 10071, Iraq"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7937-3093","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Muntadher","family":"Alsabah","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Medical Technical College, Al-Farahidi University, Baghdad 10071, Iraq"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Maryam H.","family":"Fadel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Engineering, University of Baghdad, Al-Jadriya, Baghdad 10071, Iraq"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Susan K.","family":"Ali","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Engineering, University of Baghdad, Al-Jadriya, Baghdad 10071, Iraq"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ghadeer H.","family":"Abbood","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Engineering, University of Baghdad, Al-Jadriya, Baghdad 10071, Iraq"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zianab A.","family":"Asker","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Engineering, University of Baghdad, Al-Jadriya, Baghdad 10071, Iraq"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8413-0045","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Abir","family":"Hussain","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Sharjah, Sharjah 27272, United Arab Emirates"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100121","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sintl.2021.100121","article-title":"Sensors for daily life: A review","volume":"2","author":"Javaid","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sens. Int."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ensafi, A.A. (2019). An introduction to sensors and biosensors. Electrochemical Biosensors, Elsevier.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-816491-4.00001-2"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sadhu, P.K., Yanambaka, V.P., and Abdelgawad, A. (2022). Internet of things: Security and solutions survey. Sensors, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/s22197433"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3170","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2020.3013306","article-title":"An efficient deep learning framework for intelligent energy management in IoT networks","volume":"8","author":"Han","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Things J."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mohammadzadeh, Z., Saeidnia, H.R., Lotfata, A., Hassanzadeh, M., and Ghiasi, N. (2023). Smart city healthcare delivery innovations: A systematic review of essential technologies and indicators for developing nations. BMC Health Serv. Res., 23.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12913-023-10200-8"},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"101724","article-title":"IoT based smart and intelligent smart city energy optimization","volume":"49","author":"Chen","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sustain. Energy Technol. Assess."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"144059","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2019.2942846","article-title":"Design and fabrication of smart home with internet of things enabled automation system","volume":"7","author":"Jabbar","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1039","DOI":"10.1109\/TII.2022.3165890","article-title":"Siems: A secure intelligent energy management system for industrial iot applications","volume":"19","author":"Asef","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Inform."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Visconti, P., Rausa, G., Del-Valle-Soto, C., Vel\u00e1zquez, R., Cafagna, D., and De Fazio, R. (2025). Innovative Driver Monitoring Systems and On-Board-Vehicle Devices in a Smart-Road Scenario Based on the Internet of Vehicle Paradigm: A Literature and Commercial Solutions Overview. Sensors, 25.","DOI":"10.3390\/s25020562"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"90","DOI":"10.1016\/j.procs.2016.04.103","article-title":"Patient monitoring system based on internet of things","volume":"83","author":"Oviedo","year":"2016","journal-title":"Procedia Comput. Sci."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Khan, M.A., Din, I.U., Kim, B.S., and Almogren, A. (2023). Visualization of Remote Patient Monitoring System Based on Internet of Medical Things. Sustainability, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/su15108120"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aej.2023.01.065","article-title":"The internet of things healthcare monitoring system based on MQTT protocol","volume":"69","author":"Alshammari","year":"2023","journal-title":"Alex. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ullo, S.L., and Sinha, G.R. (2020). Advances in smart environment monitoring systems using IoT and sensors. Sensors, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20113113"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kalsoom, T., Ramzan, N., Ahmed, S., and Ur-Rehman, M. (2020). Advances in Sensor Technologies in the Era of Smart Factory and Industry 4.0. Sensors, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20236783"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6037","DOI":"10.1007\/s00216-021-03602-2","article-title":"Recent developments in sensors for wearable device applications","volume":"413","author":"Cheng","year":"2021","journal-title":"Anal. Bioanal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"27","article-title":"A review of sensors and their application in internet of things (IOT)","volume":"174","author":"Sharma","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Comput. Appl."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100496","DOI":"10.1016\/j.prime.2024.100496","article-title":"Prospects and challenges of sensor materials: A comprehensive review","volume":"7","author":"Hossain","year":"2024","journal-title":"e-Prime-Adv. Electr. Eng. Electron. Energy"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Baranwal, J., Barse, B., Gatto, G., Broncova, G., and Kumar, A. (2022). Electrochemical sensors and their applications: A review. Chemosensors, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/chemosensors10090363"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Naresh, V., and Lee, N. (2021). A review on biosensors and recent development of nanostructured materials-enabled biosensors. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21041109"},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"91","article-title":"A review of structural health monitoring techniques as applied to composite structures","volume":"11","author":"Amafabia","year":"2017","journal-title":"Struct. Durab. Health Monit."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e4946","DOI":"10.1002\/cpe.4946","article-title":"An overview of Internet of Things (IoT): Architectural aspects, challenges, and protocols","volume":"32","author":"Gupta","year":"2020","journal-title":"Concurr. Comput. Pract. Exp."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132444","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2024.3455900","article-title":"Patient monitoring system based on internet of things: A review and related challenges with open research issues","volume":"12","author":"Mahmmod","year":"2024","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"499","DOI":"10.3844\/ajeassp.2020.499.515","article-title":"A comprehensive review on internet of things (IoT) and its implications in the mining industry","volume":"13","author":"Molaei","year":"2020","journal-title":"Am. J. Eng. Appl. Sci."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sna.2015.05.007","article-title":"Opto-electronic humidity sensor: A review","volume":"233","author":"Sikarwar","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A Phys."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"936","DOI":"10.1016\/j.procs.2021.01.083","article-title":"A review of wearable internet-of-things device for healthcare","volume":"179","author":"Surantha","year":"2021","journal-title":"Procedia Comput. Sci."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2573","DOI":"10.1109\/COMST.2017.2731979","article-title":"A survey of wearable devices and challenges","volume":"19","author":"Seneviratne","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Surv. Tutor."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vijayan, V., Connolly, J.P., Condell, J., McKelvey, N., and Gardiner, P. (2021). Review of wearable devices and data collection considerations for connected health. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21165589"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stavropoulos, T.G., Papastergiou, A., Mpaltadoros, L., Nikolopoulos, S., and Kompatsiaris, I. (2020). IoT wearable sensors and devices in elderly care: A literature review. Sensors, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20102826"},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"1","article-title":"A survey on wearable sensor-based systems for health monitoring and prognosis","volume":"40","author":"Pantelopoulos","year":"2009","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Syst. Man Cybern. Part C (Appl. Rev.)"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1186\/s40537-019-0268-2","article-title":"Internet of Things is a revolutionary approach for future technology enhancement: A review","volume":"6","author":"Kumar","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Big Data"},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"1647","article-title":"Internet of things (IoT): A review","volume":"20","author":"Guizani","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Surv. Tutor."},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"6122","article-title":"Internet of things-IOT: Definition, characteristics, architecture, enabling technologies, application & future challenges","volume":"6","author":"Patel","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Eng. Sci. Comput."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2014.2306328","article-title":"Internet of things for smart cities","volume":"1","author":"Zanella","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Things J."},{"key":"ref_34","first-page":"1","article-title":"Towards a definition of the Internet of Things (IoT)","volume":"1","author":"Minerva","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Initiat."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2235","DOI":"10.1007\/s11277-020-07474-0","article-title":"An overview of patient\u2019s health status monitoring system based on internet of things (IoT)","volume":"114","author":"Kadhim","year":"2020","journal-title":"Wirel. Pers. Commun."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2347","DOI":"10.1109\/COMST.2015.2444095","article-title":"Internet of things: A survey on enabling technologies, protocols, and applications","volume":"17","author":"Guizani","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Surv. Tutor."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133995","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2020.3010896","article-title":"6G and beyond: The future of wireless communications systems","volume":"8","author":"Akyildiz","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"148191","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2021.3124812","article-title":"6G wireless communications networks: A comprehensive survey","volume":"9","author":"Alsabah","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"76","DOI":"10.1109\/MNET.103.2000761","article-title":"An overview of wireless body area networks for mobile health applications","volume":"36","author":"Cornet","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Netw."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"184","DOI":"10.1145\/3555802","article-title":"Edge Computing with Artificial Intelligence: A Machine Learning Perspective","volume":"55","author":"Hua","year":"2023","journal-title":"ACM Comput. Surv."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijnurstu.2017.01.009","article-title":"The Internet of Things for basic nursing care\u2014A scoping review","volume":"69","author":"Mieronkoski","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Nurs. Stud."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Abatal, A., Mzili, M., Mzili, T., Cherrat, K., Yassine, A., and Abualigah, L. (2024). Intelligent Interconnected Healthcare System: Integrating IoT and Big Data for Personalized Patient Care. Int. J. Online Biomed. Eng., 20.","DOI":"10.3991\/ijoe.v20i11.49893"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Naser, M.A., Majeed, A.A., Alsabah, M., Al-Shaikhli, T.R., and Kaky, K.M. (2024). A review of machine learning\u2019s role in cardiovascular disease prediction: Recent advances and future challenges. Algorithms, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/a17020078"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100969","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rineng.2023.100969","article-title":"Low-cost autonomous car level 2: Design and implementation for conventional vehicles","volume":"17","author":"Mohammed","year":"2023","journal-title":"Results Eng."},{"key":"ref_45","first-page":"1207","article-title":"Designing blockchain based secure autonomous vehicular internet of things (IoT) architecture with efficient smart contracts","volume":"17","author":"Hemani","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Inf. Technol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Visconti, P., Rausa, G., Del-Valle-Soto, C., Vel\u00e1zquez, R., Cafagna, D., and De Fazio, R. (2024). Machine learning and IoT-based solutions in industrial applications for Smart Manufacturing: A critical review. Future Internet, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/fi16110394"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19143","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2024.3367692","article-title":"Industrial internet of things intelligence empowering smart manufacturing: A literature review","volume":"11","author":"Hu","year":"2024","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Things J."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108522","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compag.2023.108522","article-title":"A comprehensive survey on IoT and AI based applications in different pre-harvest, during-harvest and post-harvest activities of smart agriculture","volume":"216","author":"Kasera","year":"2024","journal-title":"Comput. Electron. Agric."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109184","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compag.2024.109184","article-title":"Smart agriculture assurance: IoT and blockchain for trusted sustainable produce","volume":"224","author":"Hasan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Comput. Electron. Agric."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"697","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scs.2018.01.053","article-title":"Towards sustainable smart cities: A review of trends, architectures, components, and open challenges in smart cities","volume":"38","author":"Silva","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sustain. Cities Soc."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ali, S.M., Noghanian, S., Khan, Z.U., Alzahrani, S., Alharbi, S., Alhartomi, M., and Alsulami, R. (2025). Wearable and Flexible Sensor Devices: Recent Advances in Designs, Fabrication Methods, and Applications. Sensors, 25.","DOI":"10.3390\/s25051377"},{"key":"ref_52","first-page":"100291","article-title":"Wearable IoT (w-IoT) artificial intelligence (AI) solution for sustainable smart-healthcare","volume":"5","author":"Singh","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int. J. Inf. Manag. Data Insights"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104089","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jnca.2024.104089","article-title":"Intelligent energy management with iot framework in smart cities using intelligent analysis: An application of machine learning methods for complex networks and systems","volume":"235","author":"Nikpour","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Netw. Comput. Appl."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100634","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ref.2024.100634","article-title":"A review of IoT-enabled smart energy hub systems: Rising, applications, challenges, and future prospects","volume":"51","author":"Sedhom","year":"2024","journal-title":"Renew. Energy Focus"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"279","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-04203-5_13","article-title":"IoT based intelligent transportation system (IoT-ITS) for global perspective: A case study","volume":"154","author":"Muthuramalingam","year":"2019","journal-title":"Internet Things Big Data Anal. Smart Gener."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3079","DOI":"10.1080\/13683500.2023.2247534","article-title":"Role of data safety and perceived privacy for acceptance of IoT-enabled technologies at smart tourism destinations","volume":"27","author":"Tiwari","year":"2024","journal-title":"Curr. Issues Tour."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sardar, T.H., Muttineni, A., and Ranjan, R. (2024). The future of big data in customer experience and inventory management. Big Data Computing, CRC Press.","DOI":"10.1201\/9781032634050-12"},{"key":"ref_58","first-page":"178019","article-title":"Edge computing for internet of things: A survey","volume":"8","author":"Sheng","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_59","first-page":"4981","article-title":"Energy harvesting for energy-efficient internet of things (IoT)","volume":"4","author":"Kim","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rodr\u00edguez-Mart\u00ednez, E.A., Flores-Fuentes, W., Achakir, F., Sergiyenko, O., and Murrieta-Rico, F.N. (2025). Vision-based navigation and perception for autonomous robots: Sensors, SLAM, control strategies, and cross-domain applications\u2014A review. Eng, 6.","DOI":"10.3390\/eng6070153"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.1109\/MC.2016.145","article-title":"The promise of edge computing","volume":"49","author":"Shi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Computer"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24920","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2021.3055618","article-title":"Artificial intelligence-based sensors for next generation IoT applications: A review","volume":"21","author":"Mukhopadhyay","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101892","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jksuci.2023.101892","article-title":"Integration of artificial intelligence (AI) with sensor networks: Trends, challenges, and future directions","volume":"36","author":"Benfradj","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. King Saud Univ.-Comput. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Badidi, E. (2020). On the scheduling of industrial IoT tasks in a fog computing environment. Proceedings of the Software Engineering Perspectives in Intelligent Systems: Proceedings of 4th Computational Methods in Systems and Software 2020, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-63322-6_83"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shajari, S., Kuruvinashetti, K., Komeili, A., and Sundararaj, U. (2023). The emergence of ai-based wearable sensors for digital health technology: A review. Sensors, 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/s23239498"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Subhan, F., Mirza, A., Su\u2019ud, M.B.M., Alam, M.M., Nisar, S., Habib, U., and Iqbal, M.Z. (2023). Ai-enabled wearable medical internet of things in healthcare system: A survey. Appl. Sci., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/app13031394"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"80543","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2023.3300658","article-title":"Opportunities, Applications, and Challenges of Edge-AI Enabled Video Analytics in Smart Cities: A Systematic Review","volume":"11","author":"Badidi","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"McGrath, M.J., and Scanaill, C.N. (2013). Sensor Technologies: Healthcare, Wellness, and Environmental Applications, Apress.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4302-6014-1"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ergon.2018.02.002","article-title":"A survey on health monitoring systems for health smart homes","volume":"66","author":"Mshali","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Ind. Ergon."},{"key":"ref_70","unstructured":"Fraden, J., and King, J. (2004). Handbook of Modern Sensors: Physics, Designs, and Applications, Springer."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124","DOI":"10.1109\/T-UFFC.1987.26922","article-title":"A sensor classification scheme","volume":"34","author":"White","year":"1987","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ultrason. Ferroelectr. Freq. Control"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1898417","DOI":"10.1155\/2022\/1898417","article-title":"Sensing techniques on determination of chlorine gas and free chlorine in water","volume":"2022","author":"Janudin","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Sens."},{"key":"ref_73","unstructured":"Sinha, G. (2020). Advances in Modern Sensors: Physics, Design, Simulation and Applications, IOP Publishing."},{"key":"ref_74","first-page":"5240","article-title":"Implementing a Secure Cloud-Based System to Safeguard Sensitive Medical Data for Healthcare","volume":"25","author":"Zghair","year":"2024","journal-title":"Scalable Comput. Pract. Exp."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"318","DOI":"10.1109\/JMEMS.2008.916357","article-title":"A MEMS thermal biosensor for metabolic monitoring applications","volume":"17","author":"Wang","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Microelectromech. Syst."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"194","DOI":"10.3390\/radiation1030018","article-title":"A review of semiconductor based ionising radiation sensors used in Harsh radiation environments and their applications","volume":"1","author":"Karmakar","year":"2021","journal-title":"Radiation"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"324","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2016.03.026","article-title":"Review on the graphene based optical fiber chemical and biological sensors","volume":"231","author":"Zhao","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"196","DOI":"10.1021\/ac00036a012","article-title":"Chemical sensors","volume":"64","author":"Janata","year":"1992","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_79","unstructured":"Peura, R.A., and Webster, J.G. (2020). Basic sensors and principles. Medical Instrumentation: Application and Design, John Wiley & Sons."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S11","DOI":"10.1149\/1.1539051","article-title":"Sensors, chemical sensors, electrochemical sensors, and ECS","volume":"150","author":"Stetter","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Electrochem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fahmy, H.M., Helmy, H.I., Ali, F.E., Motei, N.E., and Fathy, M.S. (2023). Industrial applications of sensors. Handbook of Nanosensors: Materials and Technological Applications, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-031-16338-8_55-1"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"504","DOI":"10.1021\/acsaelm.0c00746","article-title":"Acceleration sensors: Sensing mechanisms, emerging fabrication strategies, materials, and applications","volume":"3","author":"Babatain","year":"2021","journal-title":"Acs Appl. Electron. Mater."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, S., Tang, Z., and Chen, K. (August, January 31). Manufacturing Process and Comparative Analysis of MEMS Accelerometers. Proceedings of the 2024 IEEE 7th International Conference on Electronic Information and Communication Technology (ICEICT), Xi\u2019an, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICEICT61637.2024.10671126"},{"key":"ref_84","first-page":"64","article-title":"IoT Integrated Accelerometer Design and Simulation for Smart Helmets","volume":"13","author":"Priyanka","year":"2023","journal-title":"Indian J. Inf. Sources Serv."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115787","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sna.2024.115787","article-title":"Concept of computerized accelerometers","volume":"378","author":"Xu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A Phys."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fort, A., Landi, E., Mugnaini, M., and Vignoli, V. (2023, January 22\u201325). Performance of reinforced epoxy resin embedded MEMS accelerometers for IoT condition monitoring. Proceedings of the 2023 IEEE International Instrumentation and Measurement Technology Conference (I2MTC), Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.","DOI":"10.1109\/I2MTC53148.2023.10176045"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17515","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2021.3051194","article-title":"An IoT-based design using accelerometers in animal behavior recognition systems","volume":"22","author":"Tran","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1636","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2020.3014646","article-title":"Accelerometer-based key generation and distribution method for wearable IoT devices","volume":"8","author":"Sun","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Things J."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Scarsella, M., Barile, G., Iacoboni, L., Ricci, S., Stornelli, V., and Ferri, G. (2022, January 10\u201311). 3D-printed capacitive accelerometers. Proceedings of the AISEM Annual Conference on Sensors and Microsystems, Rome, Italy.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-031-25706-3_22"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2409820","DOI":"10.1002\/adfm.202409820","article-title":"Fringing-Effect-Based Capacitive Proximity Sensors","volume":"34","author":"Niu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Adv. Funct. Mater."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114500","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sna.2023.114500","article-title":"Research progress of multifunctional flexible proximity sensors","volume":"360","author":"Huang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A Phys."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1951","DOI":"10.1071\/AN21190","article-title":"Proximity sensors provide an accurate alternative for measuring maternal pedigree of lambs in Australian sheep flocks under commercial conditions","volume":"61","author":"Paganoni","year":"2021","journal-title":"Anim. Prod. Sci."},{"key":"ref_93","unstructured":"Singh, B., Gupta, A., and Aggarwal, A. (2021, January 30\u201331). Visualisation of research trends in proximity sensors. Proceedings of the AIP Conference Proceedings, Mohali, India."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vukoni\u0107, L., and Tomi\u0107, M. (2022, January 23\u201327). Ultrasonic sensors in IoT applications. Proceedings of the 2022 45th Jubilee International Convention on Information, Communication and Electronic Technology (MIPRO), Opatija, Croatia.","DOI":"10.23919\/MIPRO55190.2022.9803772"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ran, Q., Zhang, X., Song, C., Li, Y., Lin, Z., and Chiang, P.Y. (2022, January 16\u201318). A Monolithic Optical Sensor for IoT Devices Proximity-Detection. Proceedings of the 2022 2nd International Conference on Electrical Engineering and Control Science (IC2ECS), Nanjing, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/IC2ECS57645.2022.10088091"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12284","DOI":"10.48084\/etasr.6410","article-title":"Sensor Enabled Proximity Detection with Hybridisation of IoT and Computer Vision Models to Assist the Visually Impaired","volume":"13","author":"Sajini","year":"2023","journal-title":"Eng. Technol. Appl. Sci. Res."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sehrawat, D., and Gill, N.S. (2019, January 23\u201325). Smart sensors: Analysis of different types of IoT sensors. Proceedings of the 2019 3rd International Conference on Trends in Electronics and Informatics (ICOEI), Tirunelveli, India.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICOEI.2019.8862778"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1599","DOI":"10.1109\/TRO.2021.3111786","article-title":"Proximity perception in human-centered robotics: A survey on sensing systems and applications","volume":"38","author":"Navarro","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Robot."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"557","DOI":"10.1007\/s11465-017-0441-2","article-title":"MEMS-based thermoelectric infrared sensors: A review","volume":"12","author":"Xu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Mech. Eng."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, J., Willis, A.R., and Brink, K. (2023, January 17\u201324). Photometric correction for infrared sensors. Proceedings of the IEEE\/CVF Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, Vancouver, BC, Canada.","DOI":"10.1109\/CVPRW59228.2023.00049"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nagao, T., Thang, D.D., Anh, D.T., Ishii, S., and Nabatame, T. (2022). Wavelength-selective photothermal infrared sensors. System-Materials Nanoarchitectonics, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-4-431-56912-1_5"},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4181","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2023.3344605","article-title":"Artificial intelligence and iot in elderly fall prevention: A review","volume":"24","author":"Mohan","year":"2024","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kapoor, A., Oze, D., and Shankar, A. (2020, January 9\u201310). IoT Aided Smart Light Sensing Automation using Passive Infrared Sensors. Proceedings of the 2020 International Conference on Smart Technologies in Computing, Electrical and Electronics (ICSTCEE), Bengaluru, India.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICSTCEE49637.2020.9277417"},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shokrollahi, A., Persson, J.A., Malekian, R., Sarkheyli-H\u00e4gele, A., and Karlsson, F. (2024). Passive infrared sensor-based occupancy monitoring in smart buildings: A review of methodologies and machine learning approaches. Sensors, 24.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202401.1924.v1"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1016\/S0079-6727(02)00024-1","article-title":"Infrared detectors: Status and trends","volume":"27","author":"Rogalski","year":"2003","journal-title":"Prog. Quantum Electron."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2312761","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.202312761","article-title":"Recent advances in flexible pressure sensors based on MXene materials","volume":"36","author":"Qin","year":"2024","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17115","DOI":"10.3390\/s150717115","article-title":"Optical fibre pressure sensors in medical applications","volume":"15","author":"Poeggel","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"140","DOI":"10.1039\/C4MH00147H","article-title":"Advances of flexible pressure sensors toward artificial intelligence and health care applications","volume":"2","author":"Zang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Mater. Horiz."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Abdulmalek, S., Nasir, A., Jabbar, W.A., Almuhaya, M.A., Bairagi, A.K., Khan, M.A.M., and Kee, S.H. (2022). IoT-based healthcare-monitoring system towards improving quality of life: A review. Healthcare, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/healthcare10101993"},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114331","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sna.2023.114331","article-title":"Advances in triboelectric pressure sensors","volume":"355","author":"Guo","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A Phys."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1808509","DOI":"10.1002\/adfm.201808509","article-title":"Emerging technologies of flexible pressure sensors: Materials, modeling, devices, and manufacturing","volume":"29","author":"Huang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Adv. Funct. Mater."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mu\u00f1oz, R., Fuentealba, J.F., Michea, S., Santana, P.A., Martinez, J.I., Casanova-Morales, N., and Salinas-Barrera, V. (2024). Ultrasonic Sensor: A Fast and Non-Destructive System to Measure the Viscosity and Density of Molecular Fluids. Biosensors, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/bios14070346"},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nikulin, A.V., and Smirnov, V.V. (July, January 28). Comparison of Ultrasonic Rangefinders Sensors. Proceedings of the 2024 IEEE 25th International Conference of Young Professionals in Electron Devices and Materials (EDM), Altai, Russia.","DOI":"10.1109\/EDM61683.2024.10615181"},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zet, C., Fo\u015fal\u0103u, C., Hariton, A., and S\u00e2rbu, G.C. (2023, January 11\u201313). Improved Distance Measurement Using Ultrasonic Sensors. Proceedings of the 2023 International Conference on Electromechanical and Energy Systems (SIELMEN), Craiova, Romania.","DOI":"10.1109\/SIELMEN59038.2023.10290844"},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9000","DOI":"10.3390\/s150409000","article-title":"An ultrasonic sensor system based on a two-dimensional state method for highway vehicle violation detection applications","volume":"15","author":"Liu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bakdid, A., El Kihel, A., and El Kihel, B. (2024, January 28\u201329). Maintenance 4.0 using intelligent ultrasonic sensors. Proceedings of the 2024 International Conference on Circuit, Systems and Communication (ICCSC), Fes, Morocco.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCSC62074.2024.10616663"},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.15408\/jti.v16i2.32161","article-title":"IoT Based Early Flood Detection System with Arduino and Ultrasonic Sensors in Flood-Prone Areas","volume":"16","author":"Darwis","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Tek. Inform."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"393","DOI":"10.3390\/s130100393","article-title":"The role of advanced sensing in smart cities","volume":"13","author":"Hancke","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Minoli, D., and Occhiogrosso, B. (2018, January 16\u201319). Ultrawideband (UWB) technology for smart cities IoT applications. Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE international smart cities conference (ISC2), Kansas City, MO, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/ISC2.2018.8656958"},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mijailovi\u0107, D., dordevi\u0107, A., Stefanovic, M., Vidojevi\u0107, D., Gazizulina, A., and Projovi\u0107, D. (2021). A cloud-based with microcontroller platforms system designed to educate students within digitalization and the industry 4.0 paradigm. Sustainability, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/su132212396"},{"key":"ref_121","unstructured":"Toa, M., and Whitehead, A. (2020). Ultrasonic Sensing Basics, Texas Instruments."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schmitz, A., Maggiali, M., Natale, L., and Metta, G. (2010, January 13\u201315). Touch sensors for humanoid hands. Proceedings of the 19th International Symposium in Robot and Human Interactive Communication, Viareggio, Italy.","DOI":"10.1109\/ROMAN.2010.5598609"},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Anwer, A.H., Khan, N., Ansari, M.Z., Baek, S.S., Yi, H., Kim, S., Noh, S.M., and Jeong, C. (2022). Recent advances in touch sensors for flexible wearable devices. Sensors, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/s22124460"},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1080\/14686996.2020.1862629","article-title":"Flexible wearable sensors-an update in view of touch-sensing","volume":"22","author":"Vu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Technol. Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cossms.2018.10.001","article-title":"Bioinspired structural color sensors based on responsive soft materials","volume":"23","author":"Qin","year":"2019","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Solid State Mater. Sci."},{"key":"ref_126","first-page":"1276","article-title":"An Experimental Approach for Prognosis of Residual Strength of Steel by TCS3200 Color Sensor","volume":"10","author":"Ashokkumar","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Innov. Res. Technol. (IJIRT)"},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Puiu, P.D. (2012). Color sensors and their applications. Optical Nano- and Microsystems for Bioanalytics, Springer Science & Business Media.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-25498-7_1"},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Post, P.C., and Schlautman, M.A. (2020). Measuring camellia petal color using a portable color sensor. Horticulturae, 6.","DOI":"10.3390\/horticulturae6030053"},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Madadelahi, M., Romero-Soto, F.O., Kumar, R., Tlaxcala, U.B., and Madou, M.J. (2025). Electrochemical sensors: Types, applications, and the novel impacts of vibration and fluid flow for microfluidic integration. Biosens. Bioelectron., 272.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2024.117099"},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lamkin-Kennard, K.A., and Popovic, M.B. (2019). Sensors: Natural and synthetic sensors. Biomechatronics, Academic Press.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-812939-5.00004-5"},{"key":"ref_131","first-page":"7336","article-title":"A review on recent trends and future developments in electrochemical sensing","volume":"9","author":"Singh","year":"2024","journal-title":"ACS Omega"},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2400066","DOI":"10.1002\/adsr.202400066","article-title":"Chemical Sensor Technologies for Sustainable Development: Recent Advances, Classification, and Environmental Monitoring","volume":"3","author":"Inobeme","year":"2024","journal-title":"Adv. Sens. Res."},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mattod.2014.05.004","article-title":"Magnetoelectrics for magnetic sensor applications: Status, challenges and perspectives","volume":"17","author":"Wang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Mater. Today"},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"022005","DOI":"10.1088\/2631-8695\/ac0838","article-title":"Magnetic sensors\u2014A review and recent technologies","volume":"3","author":"Khan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eng. Res. Express"},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"631","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2006.874493","article-title":"Magnetic sensors and their applications","volume":"6","author":"Lenz","year":"2006","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_136","unstructured":"Wielandt, E. (2012). Seismic sensors and their calibration. New Manual of Seismological Observatory Practice 2 (NMSOP-2), Deutsches GeoForschungsZentrum GFZ."},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"833","DOI":"10.1111\/1365-2478.12617","article-title":"Internet of Things-based wireless networking for seismic applications","volume":"66","author":"Campman","year":"2018","journal-title":"Geophys. Prospect."},{"key":"ref_138","first-page":"404","article-title":"Seismic monitoring of structural and geotechnical integrated systems","volume":"33","author":"Fabbrocino","year":"2009","journal-title":"Proc. Mater. Forum"},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2405003","DOI":"10.1002\/advs.202405003","article-title":"Recent Advances in Flexible Temperature Sensors: Materials, Mechanism, Fabrication, and Applications","volume":"11","author":"Liu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Adv. Sci."},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2401503","DOI":"10.1002\/adhm.202401503","article-title":"A Review of Conductive Hydrogel-Based Wearable Temperature Sensors","volume":"13","author":"Mo","year":"2024","journal-title":"Adv. Healthc. Mater."},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104340","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dsp.2023.104340","article-title":"Integrated sensing, lighting and communication based on visible light communication: A review","volume":"145","author":"Liang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Digit. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"274","DOI":"10.1166\/sl.2005.045","article-title":"Humidity sensors: A review of materials and mechanisms","volume":"3","author":"Chen","year":"2005","journal-title":"Sens. Lett."},{"key":"ref_143","first-page":"8186","article-title":"Wearable medical monitoring systems based on wireless networks: A review","volume":"16","author":"Liang","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"298","DOI":"10.1186\/s13638-018-1308-x","article-title":"Wearable IoT enabled real-time health monitoring system","volume":"2018","author":"Wan","year":"2018","journal-title":"EURASIP J. Wirel. Commun. Netw."},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Majumder, S., Mondal, T., and Deen, M.J. (2017). Wearable sensors for remote health monitoring. Sensors, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/s17010130"},{"key":"ref_146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1039\/C7LC00914C","article-title":"Wearable sensors: Modalities, challenges, and prospects","volume":"18","author":"Heikenfeld","year":"2018","journal-title":"Lab Chip"},{"key":"ref_147","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"775","DOI":"10.1007\/s11277-023-10639-2","article-title":"A survey on smart wearable devices for healthcare applications","volume":"132","author":"Alattar","year":"2023","journal-title":"Wirel. Pers. Commun."},{"key":"ref_148","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pantelopoulos, A., and Bourbakis, N. (2008, January 20\u201325). A survey on wearable biosensor systems for health monitoring. Proceedings of the 2008 30th Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society, Vancouver, BC, Canada.","DOI":"10.1109\/IEMBS.2008.4650309"},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Crean, C., Mcgeouge, C., and O\u2019kennedy, R. (2012). Wearable biosensors for medical applications. Biosensors for Medical Applications, Elsevier.","DOI":"10.1533\/9780857097187.2.301"},{"key":"ref_150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cedillo, P., Sanchez, C., Campos, K., and Bermeo, A. (2018, January 4\u20136). A systematic literature review on devices and systems for ambient assisted living: Solutions and trends from different user perspectives. Proceedings of the 2018 International Conference on eDemocracy & eGovernment (ICEDEG), Ambato, Ecuador.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICEDEG.2018.8372367"},{"key":"ref_151","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2679","DOI":"10.1021\/acssensors.0c01318","article-title":"Wearable electrochemical sensors for the monitoring and screening of drugs","volume":"5","author":"Teymourian","year":"2020","journal-title":"ACS Sens."},{"key":"ref_152","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bhatti, D.S., Saleem, S., Imran, A., Iqbal, Z., Alzahrani, A., Kim, H., and Kim, K.I. (2022). A survey on wireless wearable body area networks: A perspective of technology and economy. Sensors, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/s22207722"},{"key":"ref_153","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5009","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-023-40763-3","article-title":"Thin, soft, wearable system for continuous wireless monitoring of artery blood pressure","volume":"14","author":"Li","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_154","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2371","DOI":"10.1007\/s11277-024-11054-x","article-title":"A Review on Emerging Applications of IoT and Sensor Technology for Industry 4.0","volume":"134","author":"Bhatt","year":"2024","journal-title":"Wirel. Pers. Commun."},{"key":"ref_155","unstructured":"Rane, N., Choudhary, S., and Rane, J. (2025, August 13). Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Internet of Things (Iot)\u2013Based Sensors for Monitoring and Controlling in Architecture, Engineering, and Construction: Applications, Challenges, and Opportunities. Available online: https:\/\/papers.ssrn.com\/sol3\/papers.cfm?abstract_id=4642197."},{"key":"ref_156","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4258","DOI":"10.1109\/TIE.2009.2015754","article-title":"Industrial wireless sensor networks: Challenges, design principles, and technical approaches","volume":"56","author":"Gungor","year":"2009","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron."},{"key":"ref_157","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sivasuriyan, A., Vijayan, D.S., Devarajan, P., Stefa\u0144ska, A., Dixit, S., Podlasek, A., Sitek, W., and Koda, E. (2024). Emerging trends in the integration of smart sensor technologies in structural health monitoring: A contemporary perspective. Sensors, 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/s24248161"},{"key":"ref_158","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44383","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2024.3381625","article-title":"A Review on the Latest Advancements and Innovation Trends in Vibration-Based Structural Health Monitoring (SHM) Techniques for Improved Maintenance of Steel Slit Damper (SSD)","volume":"12","author":"Payawal","year":"2024","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_159","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"130","DOI":"10.3126\/ktftj.v4i1.70432","article-title":"Applicability of Structural Health Monitoring of Bridges in Megaprojects","volume":"4","author":"Gupta","year":"2024","journal-title":"KTFT J."},{"key":"ref_160","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rabi, R.R., Vailati, M., and Monti, G. (2024). Effectiveness of Vibration-Based Techniques for Damage Localization and Lifetime Prediction in Structural Health Monitoring of Bridges: A Comprehensive Review. Buildings, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/buildings14041183"},{"key":"ref_161","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"And\u00f2, B., Greco, D., Navarra, G., and Lo Iacono, F. (2024). A Low-Cost Sensing Solution for SHM, Exploiting a Dedicated Approach for Signal Recognition. Sensors, 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/s24124023"},{"key":"ref_162","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Maharjan, A., Kumar, K.S., and Gnanamoorthy, P. (2024, January 4\u20135). Application of Sensors in Structural Health Monitoring. Proceedings of the International Conference on Computational Innovations and Emerging Trends (ICCIET-2024), Odalarevu, India.","DOI":"10.2991\/978-94-6463-471-6_21"},{"key":"ref_163","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Butt, M.A., Voronkov, G.S., Grakhova, E.P., Kutluyarov, R.V., Kazanskiy, N.L., and Khonina, S.N. (2022). Environmental monitoring: A comprehensive review on optical waveguide and fiber-based sensors. Biosensors, 12.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202211.0282.v1"},{"key":"ref_164","first-page":"208","article-title":"Environmental Monitoring with Machine Learning","volume":"9","author":"Singh","year":"2023","journal-title":"Epra Int. J. Multidiscip. Res. (IJMR)"},{"key":"ref_165","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Subha, C., Priya, A.K., Kalaimani, R., and Sivakumar, V. (2022). Environmental Monitoring and Management. Emerging Technologies and Applications for a Smart and Sustainable World, Bentham Science Publishers.","DOI":"10.2174\/9789815036244122010011"},{"key":"ref_166","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26369","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2024.3422169","article-title":"Development of Flexible Highly Precise Ultrasonic Sensors for Safety Control in Human-Robot Collaboration","volume":"24","author":"Li","year":"2024","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_167","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114285","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sna.2023.114285","article-title":"Multi-functional Safety Sensor Coupling Capacitive and Inductive Measurement for Physical Human-Robot Interaction","volume":"354","author":"Yim","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A Phys."},{"key":"ref_168","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5058","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2018.2832637","article-title":"Tri-mode Capacitive Proximity Detection Towards Improved Safety in Industrial Robotics","volume":"18","author":"Xia","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_169","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Korte, D. (2021). Concept of a Safety-Related Sensor System for Collaboration Between Human and Automated Guided Vehicles. Advances in Automotive Production Technology-Theory and Application: Stuttgart Conference on Automotive Production (SCAP2020), Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-662-62962-8_48"},{"key":"ref_170","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kamraju, M. (2023). Overview of geospatial science and technology. Temporal and Spatial Environmental Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-981-99-1934-5_1"},{"key":"ref_171","first-page":"81","article-title":"Geospatial Embedded Technology for On-Site Tracking and Monitoring","volume":"8","author":"Wahap","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Telecommun. Electron. Comput. Eng. (JTEC)"},{"key":"ref_172","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sameen, M.I., Jena, R., and Pradhan, B. (2019). Geospatial technology applications in environmental disaster management. Sustainable Energy and Environment, Apple Academic Press.","DOI":"10.1201\/9780429430107-14"},{"key":"ref_173","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1013999415003","article-title":"The evolution of global positioning system (GPS) technology","volume":"11","author":"Kumar","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Sci. Educ. Technol."},{"key":"ref_174","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3965","DOI":"10.1007\/s00170-021-07591-5","article-title":"Imaging sensor data modelling and evaluation based on optical composite characteristics: Investigation of data quality for inline inspection","volume":"116","author":"Meister","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol."},{"key":"ref_175","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.61552\/JIBI.2024.04.004","article-title":"Usefulness of Vibration Analysis Techniques and Sensors to Improve the Monitoring of Industrial Equipment","volume":"2","author":"Abdullayev","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Innov. Bus. Ind."},{"key":"ref_176","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1108\/SR-03-2017-0049","article-title":"Vibration Sensor for the Health Monitoring of the Large Rotating Machinery: Review and Outlook","volume":"38","author":"Xu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sens. Rev."},{"key":"ref_177","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.3390\/eng4010004","article-title":"Acoustic-Based Machine Condition Monitoring-Methods and Challenges","volume":"4","author":"Jombo","year":"2023","journal-title":"Eng"},{"key":"ref_178","unstructured":"Hughes-Riley, T., and Dias, T. (2018, January 8\u201312). The Development of Acoustic and Vibration Sensing Yarns for Health Surveillance. Proceedings of the 25th International Congress on Sound and Vibration (ICSV25), Hiroshima, Japan."},{"key":"ref_179","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Qian, S., Chen, H., Xu, Y., Zhong, L., and Su, L. (2016, January 25\u201328). A Distributed Fiber Sensing System for Acoustic Emission and Vibration of Power Equipment. Proceedings of the 2016 International Conference on Condition Monitoring and Diagnosis (CMD), Xi\u2019an, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/CMD.2016.7757948"},{"key":"ref_180","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.5604\/01.3001.0016.3143","article-title":"Gas Sensors Based on Metal Oxide Nanoparticles and Their Application for Environmentally Hazardous Gases Detection\u2014A Mini-Review","volume":"85","author":"Jonca","year":"2023","journal-title":"Zesz. Nauk. Sgsp\/Szkola Gl. Sluz. Pozar."},{"key":"ref_181","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Butt, M.A., and Piramidowicz, R. (2024). Integrated Photonic Sensors for the Detection of Toxic Gases\u2014A Review. Chemosensors, 12.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202406.0864.v1"},{"key":"ref_182","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bae, J., and Moon, B. (2010). Time Synchronization in Wireless Sensor Networks, InTech.","DOI":"10.5772\/13869"},{"key":"ref_183","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"349","DOI":"10.1002\/stc.48","article-title":"Smart sensing technology: Opportunities and challenges","volume":"11","author":"Spencer","year":"2004","journal-title":"Struct. Control Health Monit."},{"key":"ref_184","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"492819","DOI":"10.1155\/2012\/492819","article-title":"Wireless sensor network applications in smart grid: Recent trends and challenges","volume":"8","author":"Liu","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Distrib. Sens. Netw."},{"key":"ref_185","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1109\/MCE.2021.3049623","article-title":"Smart sensing for agriculture: Applications, advancements, and challenges","volume":"10","author":"Kumar","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Consum. Electron. Mag."},{"key":"ref_186","first-page":"1617","article-title":"Scalability in internet of things: Features, techniques and research challenges","volume":"13","author":"Gupta","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Comput. Intell. Res."},{"key":"ref_187","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Demirbaga, \u00dc., Aujla, G.S., Jindal, A., and Kalyon, O. (2024). Cloud computing for big data analytics. Big Data Analytics: Theory, Techniques, Platforms, and Applications, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-031-55639-5"},{"key":"ref_188","first-page":"4891","article-title":"A one decade survey of autonomous mobile robot systems","volume":"11","author":"Zghair","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Electr. Comput. Eng."},{"key":"ref_189","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"McGrath, M.J., and Scanaill, C.N. (2013). Regulations and standards: Considerations for sensor technologies. Sensor Technologies: Healthcare, Wellness, and Environmental Applications, Apress.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4302-6014-1"},{"key":"ref_190","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2300113","DOI":"10.1002\/adsr.202300113","article-title":"A review on sensor-integrating machine elements","volume":"3","author":"Kirchner","year":"2024","journal-title":"Adv. Sens. Res."},{"key":"ref_191","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ahmad, R., Wazirali, R., and Abu-Ain, T. (2022). Machine learning for wireless sensor networks security: An overview of challenges and issues. Sensors, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/s22134730"},{"key":"ref_192","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Prauzek, M., Kucova, T., Konecny, J., Adamikova, M., Gaiova, K., Mikus, M., Pospisil, P., Andriukaitis, D., Zilys, M., and Martinkauppi, B. (2023). IoT sensor challenges for geothermal energy installations monitoring: A survey. Sensors, 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/s23125577"},{"key":"ref_193","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2102","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2013.2294626","article-title":"Integration without disruption: The basic challenge of sensor integration","volume":"14","author":"Dumstorff","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_194","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20620","DOI":"10.3390\/s141120620","article-title":"Chronically implanted pressure sensors: Challenges and state of the field","volume":"14","author":"Yu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_195","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tovar-Lopez, F.J. (2023). Recent progress in micro-and nanotechnology-enabled sensors for biomedical and environmental challenges. Sensors, 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/s23125406"},{"key":"ref_196","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, E., Cai, Z., Ye, Y., Zhou, M., Liao, H., and Yi, Y. (2023). An overview of flexible sensors: Development, application, and challenges. Sensors, 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/s23020817"},{"key":"ref_197","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bouchabou, D., Nguyen, S.M., Lohr, C., LeDuc, B., and Kanellos, I. (2021). A survey of human activity recognition in smart homes based on IoT sensors algorithms: Taxonomies, challenges, and opportunities with deep learning. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21186037"},{"key":"ref_198","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alunyu, A.E., Ocen, G.G., Odongtoo, G., Matovu, D., Kiwanuka, A., and Emmanuel, E.I.L.U. (2019, January 8\u201310). Standards for Sensor Technologies that Support Mobile Patient Health Monitoring in Resource Constrained Settings. Proceedings of the 2019 IST-Africa Week Conference (IST-Africa), Nairobi, Kenya.","DOI":"10.23919\/ISTAFRICA.2019.8764823"},{"key":"ref_199","unstructured":"Lee, K.L.K. (2007, January 17\u201320). Sensor standards harmonization-path to achieving sensor interoperability. Proceedings of the 2007 IEEE Autotestcon, Baltimore, MD, USA."},{"key":"ref_200","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"90","DOI":"10.31026\/j.eng.2024.07.06","article-title":"IoT-Based Low-Cost Smart Health Monitoring System using Raspberry Pi Pico W and Blynk Application","volume":"30","author":"Mohammed","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Eng."},{"key":"ref_201","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4575","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2020.2967504","article-title":"Data integrity monitoring method of digital sensors for Internet-of-Things applications","volume":"7","author":"Liu","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Things J."},{"key":"ref_202","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5482","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2022.3148128","article-title":"Challenges, applications, and future of wireless sensors in Internet of Things: A review","volume":"22","author":"Jamshed","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_203","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Costa, F., Genovesi, S., Borgese, M., Michel, A., Dicandia, F.A., and Manara, G. (2021). A review of RFID sensors, the new frontier of Internet of Things. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21093138"},{"key":"ref_204","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1885","DOI":"10.1002\/elan.202060111","article-title":"Metalorganic frameworks toward electrochemical sensors: Challenges and opportunities","volume":"32","author":"Chuang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Electroanalysis"},{"key":"ref_205","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"04023010","DOI":"10.1061\/JCEECD.EIENG-1902","article-title":"Industry perception of the knowledge and skills required to implement sensor data analytics in construction","volume":"150","author":"Khalid","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Civ. Eng. Educ."},{"key":"ref_206","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yaqoob, U., and Younis, M.I. (2021). Chemical gas sensors: Recent developments, challenges, and the potential of machine learning\u2014A review. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21082877"},{"key":"ref_207","first-page":"100776","article-title":"Internet of Things and smart sensors in agriculture: Scopes and challenges","volume":"14","author":"Rajak","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Res."},{"key":"ref_208","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2702","DOI":"10.1109\/COMST.2019.2910750","article-title":"Demystifying IoT security: An exhaustive survey on IoT vulnerabilities and a first empirical look on Internet-scale IoT exploitations","volume":"21","author":"Neshenko","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Surv. Tutor."},{"key":"ref_209","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nalakurthi, N.V.S.R., Abimbola, I., Ahmed, T., Anton, I., Riaz, K., Ibrahim, Q., Banerjee, A., Tiwari, A., and Gharbia, S. (2024). Challenges and Opportunities in Calibrating Low-Cost Environmental Sensors. Sensors, 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/s24113650"},{"key":"ref_210","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129551","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2019.2932609","article-title":"Internet-of-Things (IoT)-based smart agriculture: Toward making the fields talk","volume":"7","author":"Ayaz","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_211","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3557","DOI":"10.1109\/TIE.2009.2039455","article-title":"Opportunities and challenges of wireless sensor networks in smart grid","volume":"57","author":"Gungor","year":"2010","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron."},{"key":"ref_212","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"877","DOI":"10.1016\/j.comnet.2006.01.005","article-title":"A survey on communication networks for electric system automation","volume":"50","author":"Gungor","year":"2006","journal-title":"Comput. Netw."}],"container-title":["Computers"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-431X\/14\/8\/342\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T18:32:43Z","timestamp":1760034763000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-431X\/14\/8\/342"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,21]]},"references-count":212,"journal-issue":{"issue":"8","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,8]]}},"alternative-id":["computers14080342"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/computers14080342","relation":{},"ISSN":["2073-431X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2073-431X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,21]]}}}