{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T01:40:28Z","timestamp":1760060428787,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":67,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,27]],"date-time":"2025-08-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1756252800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Ministry of Science and Higher Education of the Republic of Kazakhstan.","award":["IRN AP 19677835"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["IRN AP 19677835"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Computers"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The research focuses on the development and evaluation of a legal question\u2013answer system for the Kazakh language, a low-resource and morphologically complex language. Four datasets were compiled from open legal sources\u2014Adilet, Zqai, Gov, and a manually created synthetic set\u2014containing question\u2013\u0430nswer pairs extracted from official legislative documents and government portals. Seven large language models (GPT-4o mini, GEMMA, KazLLM, LLaMA, Phi, Qwen, and Mistral) were fine-tuned using structured prompt templates, quantization methods, and domain-specific training to enhance contextual understanding and efficiency. The evaluation employed both automatic metrics (ROUGE and METEOR) and expert-based manual assessment. GPT-4o mini achieved the highest overall performance, with ROUGE-1: 0.309, ROUGE-2: 0.175, ROUGE-L: 0.263, and METEOR: 0.320, and received an expert score of 3.96, indicating strong legal reasoning capabilities and adaptability to Kazakh legal contexts. The results highlight GPT-4o mini\u2019s superiority over other tested models in both quantitative and qualitative evaluations. This work demonstrates the feasibility and importance of developing localized legal AI solutions for low-resource languages, contributing to improved legal accessibility, transparency, and digital governance in Kazakhstan.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/computers14090354","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,28]],"date-time":"2025-08-28T07:43:16Z","timestamp":1756366996000},"page":"354","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Legal AI in Low-Resource Languages: Building and Evaluating QA Systems for the Kazakh Legislation"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Diana","family":"Rakhimova","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Information Systems, Al-Farabi Kazakh National University, Almaty 050040, Kazakhstan"},{"name":"Institute of Information and Computational Technologies, Almaty 050010, Kazakhstan"}]},{"given":"Assem","family":"Turarbek","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Information Systems, Al-Farabi Kazakh National University, Almaty 050040, Kazakhstan"},{"name":"Institute of Information and Computational Technologies, Almaty 050010, Kazakhstan"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8768-0349","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Vladislav","family":"Karyukin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Information Systems, Al-Farabi Kazakh National University, Almaty 050040, Kazakhstan"}]},{"given":"Assiya","family":"Sarsenbayeva","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Information Systems, Al-Farabi Kazakh National University, Almaty 050040, Kazakhstan"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-5432-0480","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rashid","family":"Alieyev","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Information Systems, Al-Farabi Kazakh National University, Almaty 050040, Kazakhstan"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1186\/s40537-023-00802-8","article-title":"Exploring the State of the Art in Legal QA Systems","volume":"10","author":"Abdallah","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. 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