{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,3]],"date-time":"2026-06-03T01:32:32Z","timestamp":1780450352222,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":60,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,26]],"date-time":"2025-09-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1758844800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.mdpi.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Computers"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This study investigates the adoption of PyChatAI, a bilingual AI-powered chatbot for Python programming education, among female computer science students at Jouf University. Guided by the Technology Acceptance Model 3 (TAM3), it examines the determinants of user acceptance and usage behaviour. A Solomon Four-Group experimental design (N = 300) was used to control pre-test effects and isolate the impact of the intervention. PyChatAI provides interactive problem-solving, code explanations, and topic-based tutorials in English and Arabic. Measurement and structural models were validated via Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) and Structural Equation Modelling (SEM), achieving excellent fit (CFI = 0.980, RMSEA = 0.039). Results show that perceived usefulness (\u03b2 = 0.446, p &lt; 0.001) and perceived ease of use (\u03b2 = 0.243, p = 0.005) significantly influence intention to use, which in turn predicts actual usage (\u03b2 = 0.406, p &lt; 0.001). Trust, facilitating conditions, and hedonic motivation emerged as strong antecedents of ease of use, while social influence and cognitive factors had limited impact. These findings demonstrate that AI-driven bilingual tools can effectively enhance programming engagement in gender-specific, culturally sensitive contexts, offering practical guidance for integrating intelligent tutoring systems into computer science curricula.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/computers14100411","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,26]],"date-time":"2025-09-26T14:50:38Z","timestamp":1758898238000},"page":"411","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Examining the Influence of AI on Python Programming Education: An Empirical Study and Analysis of Student Acceptance Through TAM3"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-0342-1233","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Manal","family":"Alanazi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Computer and Information Sciences, Jouf University, Sakaka 72388, Saudi Arabia"},{"name":"Department of Computer Science and Information Technology, La Trobe University, Melbourne, VIC 3086, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alice","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"La Trobe Business School, La Trobe University, Melbourne, VIC 3086, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5199-3677","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Halima","family":"Samra","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Computing & Information Technology, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9519-886X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ben","family":"Soh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Science and Information Technology, La Trobe University, Melbourne, VIC 3086, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alanazi, M., Soh, B., Samra, H., and Li, A. (2025). PyChatAI: Enhancing Python Programming Skills\u2014An Empirical Study of a Smart Learning System. Computers, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/computers14050158"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alanazi, M., Soh, B., Samra, H., and Li, A. (2025). The Influence of Artificial Intelligence Tools on Learning Outcomes in Computer Programming: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Computers, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/computers14050185"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aznar-D\u00edaz, I., C\u00e1ceres-Reche, M.P., and Romero-Rodr\u00edguez, J.M. (2019). Artificial intelligence in higher education: A bibliometric study on its impact in the scientific literature. Educ. Sci., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/educsci9010051"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1186\/s40594-025-00537-3","article-title":"The impact of AI-assisted pair programming on student motivation, programming anxiety, collaborative learning, and programming performance: A comparative study with traditional pair programming and individual approaches","volume":"12","author":"Fan","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int. J. STEM Educ."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bassner, P., Frankford, E., and Krusche, S. (2024, January 8\u201310). Iris: An AI-driven virtual tutor for computer science education. Proceedings of the 2024 on Innovation and Technology in Computer Science Education, Milan, Italy.","DOI":"10.1145\/3649217.3653543"},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"1","article-title":"Understanding user perception toward artificial intelligence (AI) enabled e-learning","volume":"38","author":"Kashive","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Inf. Learn. Technol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ghimire, A., and Edwards, J. (2024, January 13\u201314). Generative AI adoption in the classroom: A contextual exploration using the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) and the Innovation Diffusion Theory (IDT). Proceedings of the 2024 Intermountain Engineering, Technology and Computing (IETC), Logan, UT, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/IETC61393.2024.10564292"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18366","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2025.3534099","article-title":"The influence of Social Support Theory on AI acceptance: Examining educational support and perceived usefulness using SEM analysis","volume":"13","author":"Aldraiweesh","year":"2025","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"1","article-title":"Analysis of a randomized controlled trial of student performance in parallel programming using a new measurement technique","volume":"20","author":"Daleiden","year":"2020","journal-title":"ACM Trans. Comput. Educ. (TOCE)"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99752","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2023.3314499","article-title":"Understanding the factors influencing higher education students\u2019 intention to adopt artificial intelligence-based robots","volume":"11","author":"Algerafi","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63895","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2025.3553631","article-title":"Creating a novel approach to examine how King Saud University\u2019s Arts College students utilize AI programs","volume":"13","author":"Almogren","year":"2025","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"1","article-title":"The Moderating Effect of Gender and Age on the Students\u2019 Acceptance of Learning Management Systems in Saudi Higher Education","volume":"17","author":"Binyamin","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Educ. Technol. High. Educ."},{"key":"ref_13","first-page":"55","article-title":"Barriers and Potential Solutions to Women in Studying Computer Programming in Saudi Arabia","volume":"12","author":"Alanazi","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Enhanc. Res. Manag. Comput. Appl."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.32038\/ltrq.2024.42.02","article-title":"English Medium Instruction in Saudi Arabia: A Systematic Review","volume":"42","author":"Alharbi","year":"2024","journal-title":"Lang. Teach. Res. Q."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1186\/s41239-023-00411-8","article-title":"Students\u2019 voices on generative AI: Perceptions, benefits, and challenges in higher education","volume":"20","author":"Chan","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Educ. Technol. High. Educ."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100290","DOI":"10.1016\/j.caeai.2024.100290","article-title":"AI chatbots in programming education: Students\u2019 use in a scientific computing course and consequences for learning","volume":"7","author":"Groothuijsen","year":"2024","journal-title":"Comput. Educ. Artif. Intell."},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"137","article-title":"Predicting the future of artificial intelligence and its educational impact: A thought experiment based on social science fiction","volume":"42","author":"Gu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Educ. Res."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100198","DOI":"10.1016\/j.caeai.2023.100198","article-title":"ChatGPT effects on cognitive skills of undergraduate students: Receiving instant responses from AI-based conversational large language models (LLMs)","volume":"6","author":"Essel","year":"2024","journal-title":"Comput. Educ. Artif. Intell."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Garcia, M.B., Revano, T.F., Maaliw, R.R., Lagrazon, P.G.G., Valderama, A.M.C., Happonen, A., Qureshi, B., and Yilmaz, R. (2023, January 19\u201323). Exploring student preference between AI-powered ChatGPT and human-curated Stack Overflow in resolving programming problems and queries. Proceedings of the 2023 IEEE 15th International Conference on Humanoid, Nanotechnology, Information Technology, Communication and Control, Environment, and Management (HNICEM), Coron, Philippines.","DOI":"10.1109\/HNICEM60674.2023.10589162"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e33251","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2024.e33251","article-title":"Continue using or gathering dust? A mixed method research on the factors influencing the continuous use intention for an AI-powered adaptive learning system for rural middle school students","volume":"10","author":"Han","year":"2024","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"100088","article-title":"Why do students adopt and use learning management systems?: Insights from Saudi Arabia","volume":"2","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Inf. Manag. Data Insights"},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"80","article-title":"Assessed by machines: Development of a TAM-based tool to measure AI-based assessment acceptance among students","volume":"6","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Interact. Multimed. Artif. Intell."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2380175","DOI":"10.1080\/2331186X.2024.2380175","article-title":"Investigating the adoption of AI in higher education: A study of public universities in Indonesia","volume":"11","author":"Helmiatin","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cogent Educ."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100153","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tbench.2024.100153","article-title":"Benchmarking ChatGPT for prototyping theories: Experimental studies using the Technology Acceptance Model","volume":"3","author":"Goh","year":"2023","journal-title":"BenchCouncil Trans. Benchmarks Stand. Eval."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100402","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chbr.2024.100402","article-title":"Understanding the diffusion of AI-generative (ChatGPT) in higher education: Does students\u2019 integrity matter?","volume":"14","author":"Bouteraa","year":"2024","journal-title":"Comput. Hum. Behav. Rep."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100113","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chbah.2024.100113","article-title":"Exploring predictors of AI chatbot usage intensity among students: Within- and between-person relationships based on the Technology Acceptance Model","volume":"3","author":"Kleine","year":"2025","journal-title":"Comput. Hum. Behav. Artif. Hum."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Moon, J., and Kim, S.B. (2023, January 28\u201330). Analyzing elementary teachers\u2019 perception of ChatGPT. Proceedings of the 2023 5th International Workshop on Artificial Intelligence and Education (WAIE), Tokyo, Japan.","DOI":"10.1109\/WAIE60568.2023.00015"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sitanaya, I.H., Luhukay, D., and Syahchari, D.H. (2024, January 7\u20139). Digital education revolution: Analysis of ChatGPT\u2019s influence on student learning in Jakarta. Proceedings of the 2024 IEEE International Conference on Technology, Informatics, Management, Engineering and Environment (TIME-E), Bali, Indonesia.","DOI":"10.1109\/TIME-E62724.2024.10919765"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e32220","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2024.e32220","article-title":"Investigating influencing factors of learning satisfaction in AI ChatGPT for research: University students\u2019 perspective","volume":"10","author":"Almulla","year":"2024","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2025275","DOI":"10.31893\/multiscience.2025275","article-title":"AI-assisted learning: An empirical study on student application behavior","volume":"7","author":"Duy","year":"2025","journal-title":"Multidiscip. Sci. J."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Castillo-Vergara, M., \u00c1lvarez-Mar\u00edn, A., Villavicencio Pinto, E., and Valdez-Ju\u00e1rez, L.E. (2022). Technological acceptance of Industry 4.0 by students from rural areas. Electronics, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/electronics11142109"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Madni, S.H.H., Ali, J., Husnain, H.A., Masum, M.H., Mustafa, S., Shuja, J., Maray, M., and Hosseini, S. (2022). Factors influencing the adoption of IoT for e-learning in higher educational institutes in developing countries. Front. Psychol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2022.915596"},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"68","article-title":"Investigating the effective factors on the acceptance of teleorthodontic technology based on the Technology Acceptance Model 3 (TAM3)","volume":"25","author":"Yazdanpanahi","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Dent."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jretconser.2014.09.006","article-title":"Assessing the moderating effect of gender differences and individualism\u2013collectivism at individual-level on the adoption of mobile commerce technology: TAM3 perspective","volume":"22","author":"Faqih","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Retail. Consum. Serv."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"94","DOI":"10.1080\/02188791.2024.2305155","article-title":"The factors influencing teacher education students\u2019 willingness to adopt artificial intelligence technology for information-based teaching","volume":"44","author":"Ma","year":"2024","journal-title":"Asia Pac. J. Educ."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1755","DOI":"10.1007\/s10639-020-10323-z","article-title":"Influencing factors in M-learning adoption in higher education","volume":"26","author":"Qashou","year":"2021","journal-title":"Educ. Inf. Technol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5755","DOI":"10.1007\/s10639-024-13058-3","article-title":"Analysing factors influencing undergraduates\u2019 adoption of intelligent physical education systems using an expanded TAM","volume":"30","author":"Li","year":"2025","journal-title":"Educ. Inf. Technol."},{"key":"ref_38","first-page":"256","article-title":"Analysis of user acceptance levels of the e-Rapor system users in junior high schools in Rembang District using the TAM 3 and DeLone McLean","volume":"6","author":"Dewi","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Adv. Inf. Syst. Technol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kavitha, K., and Joshith, V.P. (2025). Artificial intelligence powered pedagogy: Unveiling higher educators\u2019 acceptance with extended TAM. J. Univ. Teach. Learn. Pract., 21.","DOI":"10.53761\/s1pkk784"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.4018\/IJTHI.318481","article-title":"Users\u2019 acceptance of artificial intelligence-based chatbots: An empirical study","volume":"19","author":"Goli","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Technol. Hum. Interact. (IJTHI)"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Handoko, B.L., Thomas, G.N., and Indriaty, L. (2024, January 4\u20135). Adoption and utilization of artificial intelligence to enhance student learning satisfaction. Proceedings of the 2024 International Conference on ICT for Smart Society (ICISS), Bandung, Indonesia.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICISS62896.2024.10751260"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.12973\/eu-jer.13.1.183","article-title":"New challenges of learning accounting with artificial intelligence: The role of innovation and trust in technology","volume":"13","author":"Musyaffi","year":"2024","journal-title":"Eur. J. Educ. Res."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chiu, M.Y., and Chiu, F.Y. (2024, January 6\u20138). Using UTAUT to explore the acceptance of high school students in programming learning with robots. Proceedings of the 2024 21st International Conference on Information Technology Based Higher Education and Training (ITHET), Paris, France.","DOI":"10.1109\/ITHET61869.2024.10837674"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pan, Z., Xie, Z., Liu, T., and Xia, T. (2024). Exploring the key factors influencing college students\u2019 willingness to use AI coding assistant tools: An expanded technology acceptance model. Systems, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/systems12050176"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ho, C.L., Liu, X.Y., Qiu, Y.W., and Yang, S.Y. (2024, January 22\u201324). Research on innovative applications and impacts of using generative AI for user interface design in programming courses. Proceedings of the 2024 International Conference on Information Technology, Data Science, and Optimization, Taipei, Taiwan.","DOI":"10.1145\/3658549.3658566"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1385","DOI":"10.1177\/07356331241240460","article-title":"Toward artificial intelligence\u2013human paired programming: A review of the educational applications and research on artificial intelligence code-generation tools","volume":"62","author":"Liu","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Educ. Comput. Res."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ferri, L., Maffei, M., Span\u00f2, R., and Zagaria, C. (2023). Uncovering risk professionals\u2019 intentions to use artificial intelligence: Empirical evidence from the Italian setting. Manag. Decis.","DOI":"10.1108\/MD-02-2023-0178"},{"key":"ref_48","first-page":"2763","article-title":"Assessing cobot\u2019s acceptability of French workers: Proposition of a model integrating the TAM3, the ELSI and the meaning of work scales","volume":"41","author":"Cippelletti","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Hum.\u2013Comput. Interact."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2460250","DOI":"10.1080\/2331186X.2025.2460250","article-title":"The predictors of behavioral intention to use ChatGPT for academic purposes: Evidence from higher education in Somalia","volume":"12","author":"Abdi","year":"2025","journal-title":"Cogent Educ."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1540-5915.2008.00192.x","article-title":"Technology acceptance model 3 and a research agenda on interventions","volume":"39","author":"Venkatesh","year":"2008","journal-title":"Decis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3192","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbusres.2015.12.008","article-title":"Common methods variance detection in business research","volume":"69","author":"Fuller","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Bus. Res."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"879","DOI":"10.1037\/0021-9010.88.5.879","article-title":"Common method biases in behavioral research: A critical review of the literature and recommended remedies","volume":"88","author":"Podsakoff","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Appl. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1080\/10705519909540118","article-title":"Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives","volume":"6","author":"Hu","year":"1999","journal-title":"Struct. Equ. Model. Multidiscip. J."},{"key":"ref_54","unstructured":"Joreskog, K., and Sorbom, D. (1993). Structural Equation Modelling: Guidelines for Determining Model Fit, University Press of America."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"815","DOI":"10.1016\/j.paid.2006.09.018","article-title":"Structural equation modelling: Adjudging model fit","volume":"42","author":"Barrett","year":"2007","journal-title":"Personal. Individ. Differ."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1177\/002224378101800104","article-title":"Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error","volume":"18","author":"Fornell","year":"1981","journal-title":"J. Mark. Res."},{"key":"ref_57","unstructured":"Hair, J.F.B., William, C., Babin, B.J., and Anderson, R.E. (2009). Multivariate Data Analysis, Pearson. [7th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hair, J.F., Gabriel, M., and Patel, V. (2014). AMOS covariance-based structural equation modeling (CB-SEM): Guidelines on its application as a marketing research tool. Braz. J. Mark., 13.","DOI":"10.5585\/remark.v13i2.2718"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1007\/s11747-014-0403-8","article-title":"A new criterion for assessing discriminant validity in variance-based structural equation modeling","volume":"43","author":"Henseler","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Acad. Mark. Sci."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"745","DOI":"10.1007\/s10490-023-09871-y","article-title":"Reporting reliability, convergent and discriminant validity with structural equation modeling: A review and best-practice recommendations","volume":"41","author":"Cheung","year":"2024","journal-title":"Asia Pac. J. Manag."}],"container-title":["Computers"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-431X\/14\/10\/411\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,26]],"date-time":"2025-09-26T14:54:22Z","timestamp":1758898462000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-431X\/14\/10\/411"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,26]]},"references-count":60,"journal-issue":{"issue":"10","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10]]}},"alternative-id":["computers14100411"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/computers14100411","relation":{},"ISSN":["2073-431X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2073-431X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,26]]}}}