{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,29]],"date-time":"2025-10-29T11:40:23Z","timestamp":1761738023182,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":52,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,28]],"date-time":"2025-10-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1761609600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Computers"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Proficiency in machine learning (ML) and the associated computational math foundations have become critical skills for engineers. Required areas of proficiency include the ability to use available ML tools and the ability to develop new tools to solve engineering problems. Engineers also need to be proficient in using generative artificial intelligence (AI) tools in a variety of contexts, including as an aid to learning, research, writing, and code generation. Using these tools properly requires a solid understanding of the associated computational math foundation. Without this foundation, engineers will struggle with developing new tools and can easily misuse available ML\/AI tools, leading to poorly designed systems that are suboptimal or even harmful to society. Teaching (and learning) these skills can be difficult due to the breadth of skills required. One contribution of this paper is that it approaches teaching this topic within an industrial engineering human factors framework. Another contribution is the detailed case study narrative describing specific pedagogical challenges, including implementation of teaching strategies (successful and unsuccessful), recent observed trends in generative AI, and student perspectives on learning this topic. Although the primary methodology is anecdotal, we also include empirical data in support of anecdotal results.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/computers14110465","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,29]],"date-time":"2025-10-29T04:26:29Z","timestamp":1761711989000},"page":"465","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Teaching Machine Learning to Undergraduate Electrical Engineering Students"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9537-2090","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gerald","family":"Fudge","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Engineering and Technology, East Texas A&M University, Commerce, TX 75428, USA"}]},{"given":"Anika","family":"Rimu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Engineering and Technology, East Texas A&M University, Commerce, TX 75428, USA"}]},{"given":"William","family":"Zorn","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Engineering and Technology, East Texas A&M University, Commerce, TX 75428, USA"}]},{"given":"July","family":"Ringle","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Engineering and Technology, East Texas A&M University, Commerce, TX 75428, USA"}]},{"given":"Cody","family":"Barnett","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Engineering and Technology, East Texas A&M University, Commerce, TX 75428, USA"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"24","article-title":"Hard skill gap between university education and the robotic industry","volume":"63","author":"Do","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Comput. Inf. Syst."},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"63","article-title":"An investigation of skill requirements in artificial intelligence and machine learning job advertisements","volume":"36","author":"Verma","year":"2022","journal-title":"Ind. High. Educ."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aikins, G., Berdanier, C.G.P., and Nguyen, K.-D. (2024). Data proficiency in MAE education: Insights from student perspectives and experiences. Int. J. Mech. Eng. Educ.","DOI":"10.1177\/03064190241290897"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1109\/MPOT.2024.3522865","article-title":"Employment dynamics: Exploring job roles, skills, and companies","volume":"44","author":"Saroja","year":"2025","journal-title":"IEEE Potentials"},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Alsharif, A.M. (2025). Exploring Engineering Employment Trends: A Decade-Long Deep Dive into Skills and Competences Included in Job Advertisements. [Ph.D. Thesis, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University]."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Beke, E. (2023, January 19\u201321). Engineering competencies expected in the digital working places. Proceedings of the 2023 IEEE 21st World Symposium on Applied Machine Intelligence and Informatics (SAMI), Herl\u2019any, Slovakia.","DOI":"10.1109\/SAMI58000.2023.10044531"},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"Raschka, S., Liu, Y., Mirjalili, V., and Dzhulgakov, D. (2022). Machine Learning with PyTorch and Scikit-Learn, Packt."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Prentzas, J., and Sidiropoulou, M. (2023, January 12). Assessing the use of open AI chat-GPT in a University Department of Education. Proceedings of the 2023 14th International Conference on Information, Intelligence, Systems & Applications (IISA), Volos, Greece.","DOI":"10.1109\/IISA59645.2023.10345910"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fudge, G.L. (2024, January 18). Teaching Computational Math and Introducing Machine Learning to Electrical Engineering Students at an Emerging Hispanic Serving Institution. Proceedings of the IEEE SoutheastCon, Atlanta, GA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/SoutheastCon52093.2024.10500115"},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"2","article-title":"Closing the achievement gap for underrepresented minority students in STEM: A deep look at a comprehensive intervention","volume":"21","author":"Schuler","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. STEM Educ. Innov. Res."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Atindama, E., Ramsdell, M., Wick, D.P., Mondal, S., and Athavale, P. (2025). Impact of targeted interventions on success of high-risk engineering students: A focus on historically underrepresented students in STEM. Front. Educ., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/feduc.2025.1435279"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Czaja, S.J., and Nair, S.N. (2012). Human factors engineering and systems design. Handbook of Human Factors and Ergonomics, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.","DOI":"10.1002\/9781118131350.ch2"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kaswan, K.S., Dhatterwal, J.S., Malik, K., and Baliyan, A. (2023, January 23\u201325). Generative AI: A review on models and applications. Proceedings of the 2023 International Conference on Communication, Security and Artificial Intelligence (ICCSAI), Greater Noida, India.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCSAI59793.2023.10421601"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bender, E.M., Gebru, T., McMillan-Major, A., and Shmitchell, S. (2021, January 3\u201310). On the dangers of stochastic parrots: Can language models be too big?. Proceedings of the 2021 ACM Conference on Fairness, Accountability, and Transparency, Virtual.","DOI":"10.1145\/3442188.3445922"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gaitantzi, A., and Kazanidis, I. (2025). The Role of Artificial Intelligence in Computer Science Education: A Systematic Review with a Focus on Database Instruction. Appl. Sci., 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/app15073960"},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"2653508","article-title":"Hallucinations in Legal Practice: A Comparative Case Law Analysis","volume":"2025","author":"Munir","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int. J. Law Ethics Technol."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Jamieson, P., Ricco, G.D., Swanson, B.A., and Van Scoy, B. (2025, January 22\u201325). BOARD# 134: Results and Evaluation of an Early LLM Benchmarking of our ECE Undergraduate Curriculums. Proceedings of the 2025 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition, Montreal, QC, Canada."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hernandez, N.V., Fuentes, A., and Crown, S. (2018, January 3\u20136). Effectively transforming students through first year engineering student experiences. Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE Frontiers in Education Conference (FIE), San Jose, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/FIE.2018.8658752"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lundy-Wagner, V.C., Salzman, N., and Ohland, M.W. (2013, January 23\u201326). Reimagining engineering diversity: A study of academic advisors\u2019 perspectives on socioeconomic status. Proceedings of the 2013 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition, Atlanta, GA, USA.","DOI":"10.18260\/1-2--22416"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"04017016","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)EI.1943-5541.0000357","article-title":"Learning from practitioners that support underrepresented students in engineering","volume":"144","author":"Lee","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Prof. Issues Eng. Educ. Pract."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"es5","DOI":"10.1187\/cbe.16-01-0038","article-title":"Improving underrepresented minority student persistence in STEM","volume":"15","author":"Estrada","year":"2016","journal-title":"CBE-Life Sci. Educ."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1186\/s40594-020-00267-8","article-title":"A scoping review of literature assessing the impact of the learning assistant model","volume":"8","author":"Barrasso","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. STEM Educ."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Tapia, R.A. (2020). Losing the Precious Few: How America Fails to Educate Its Minorities in Science and Engineering, Arte P\u00fablico Press."},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"214","article-title":"Teaching the Digital Natives: Examining the Learning Needs and Preferences of Gen Z Learners in Higher Education","volume":"6","author":"Hammad","year":"2025","journal-title":"Transcult. J. Humanit. Soc. Sci."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Quallen, S.M., Crepeau, J., Willis, B., Beyerlein, S.W., and Petersen, J.J. (2021, January 26\u201329). Transforming introductory engineering courses to match genZ learning styles. Proceedings of the 2021 ASEE Virtual Annual Conference Content Access, virtual."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"389","DOI":"10.3946\/kjme.2024.312","article-title":"Medical student needs for e-learning: Perspectives of the generation Z","volume":"36","author":"Kim","year":"2024","journal-title":"Korean J. Med. Educ."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1278","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chb.2010.05.031","article-title":"Integrating Cognitive Load Theory and Concepts of Human-Computer Interaction","volume":"26","author":"Hollender","year":"2010","journal-title":"Comput. Hum. Behav."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.1007\/s10648-019-09465-5","article-title":"Cognitive Architecture and Instructional Design: 20 Years Later","volume":"31","author":"Sweller","year":"2019","journal-title":"Educ. Psychol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1022193728205","article-title":"Cognitive Architecture and Instructional Design","volume":"10","author":"Sweller","year":"1998","journal-title":"Educ. Psychol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1016\/S0959-4752(01)00021-4","article-title":"Managing Cognitive Load\u2014Recent Trends in Cognitive Load Theory","volume":"12","author":"Bannert","year":"2002","journal-title":"Learn. Instr."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"Kalyuga, S. (2012). Prior Knowledge Principle in Multimedia Learning. The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning, Cambridge University Press."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Oviatt, S. (2006, January 23\u201327). Human-Centered Design Meets Cognitive Load Theory: Designing Interfaces That Help People Think. Proceedings of the 14th Annual ACM International Conference on Multimedia, Santa Barbara, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/1180639.1180831"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Oviatt, S., Arthur, A., and Cohen, J. (2008, January 15\u201318). Quiet Interfaces That Help Students Think. Proceedings of the UIST 2006: Proceedings of the 19th Annual ACM Symposium on User Interface Software and Technology, Montreux, Switzerland.","DOI":"10.1145\/1166253.1166284"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Altay, B. (2014). User-Centered Design through Learner-Centered Instruction. Teach. High. Educ., 19.","DOI":"10.1080\/13562517.2013.827646"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1239","DOI":"10.1080\/03075079.2011.616584","article-title":"Inquiry-Based Learning in Higher Education: Principal Forms, Educational Objectives, and Disciplinary Variations","volume":"38","author":"Aditomo","year":"2013","journal-title":"Stud. High. Educ."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1002\/tl.37219966704","article-title":"The Active Learning Continuum: Choosing Activities to Engage Students in the Classroom","volume":"1996","author":"Bonwell","year":"1996","journal-title":"New Dir. Teach. Learn."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hussain, A.A., El-Nakla, S., Khan, A.H., Nayfeh, J., Ifurong, A., and Tayem, N. (2024, January 3\u20135). Project-Based Learning Approach for Undergraduate Electrical Engineering Laboratories: A Case Study. Proceedings of the 2024 6th International Symposium on Advanced Electrical and Communication Technologies, ISAECT 2024, Alkhobar, Saudi Arabia.","DOI":"10.1109\/ISAECT64333.2024.10799876"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1109\/MCSE.2023.3297750","article-title":"Leverage Biology to Learn Rapidly from Mistakes Without Feeling Like a Failure","volume":"25","author":"Margulieux","year":"2023","journal-title":"Comput. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lytle, N., Catet\u00e9, V., Boulden, D., Dong, Y., Houchins, J., Milliken, A., Isvik, A., Bounajim, D., Wiebe, E., and Barnes, T. (2019, January 15\u201319). Use, modify, create: Comparing computational thinking lesson progressions for stem classes. Proceedings of the 2019 ACM Conference on Innovation and Technology in Computer Science Education, Aberdeen, UK.","DOI":"10.1145\/3304221.3319786"},{"key":"ref_40","first-page":"421","article-title":"Findings on teaching machine learning in high school: A ten-year systematic literature review","volume":"22","author":"Martins","year":"2023","journal-title":"Inform. Educ."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sol\u00f3rzano, J.G.L., \u00c1ngel Rueda, C.J., and Vergara Villegas, O.O. (2024). Measuring Undergraduates\u2019 Motivation Levels When Learning to Program in Virtual Worlds. Computers, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/computers13080188"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"90","DOI":"10.1109\/MC.2023.3262909","article-title":"Data\u2019s impact on algorithmic bias","volume":"56","author":"Shin","year":"2023","journal-title":"Computer"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tick, A. (2024, January 19\u201321). Exploring ChatGPT\u2019s Potential and Concerns in Higher Education. Proceedings of the 2024 IEEE 22nd Jubilee International Symposium on Intelligent Systems and Informatics (SISY), Pula, Croatia.","DOI":"10.1109\/SISY62279.2024.10737595"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77737","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2023.3298294","article-title":"Using PBL and agile to teach artificial intelligence to undergraduate computing students","volume":"11","author":"Paiva","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_45","first-page":"1773","article-title":"A project based learning approach for teaching artificial intelligence to undergraduate students","volume":"36","author":"Vargas","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Eng. Educ."},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"ABET (2025, October 03). Criteria for Accrediting Engineering Program. Available online: https:\/\/www.abet.org\/accreditation\/accreditation-criteria\/criteria-for-accrediting-engineering-programs-2025-2026."},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"Theobald, O. (2021). Machine Learning for Absolute Beginners: A Plain English Introduction, Independently published. [3rd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lee, H.P., Sarkar, A., Tankelevitch, L., Drosos, I., Rintel, S., Banks, R., and Wilson, N. (April, January 1). The impact of generative AI on critical thinking: Self-reported reductions in cognitive effort and confidence effects from a survey of knowledge workers. Proceedings of the 2025 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, Yokohama, Japan.","DOI":"10.1145\/3706598.3713778"},{"key":"ref_49","first-page":"428","article-title":"Procedure for the determination of the student workload and the learning environment created in the power electronics course taught through project-based learning","volume":"65","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Educ."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4793293","DOI":"10.1155\/2021\/4793293","article-title":"Classification of Date Fruits into Genetic Varieties Using Image Analysis","volume":"2021","author":"Koklu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Math. Probl. Eng."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gradinaru, S.J., Harrington, C.L., Clinton, J.T., Jackson, S., Gilbert, G., and Fudge, G.L. (2025, January 16\u201317). An Integrated Time-Frequency Detector and Radar Pulse Modulation CNN Classifier. Proceedings of the IEEE SoutheastCon 2025, virtual.","DOI":"10.1109\/SoutheastCon56624.2025.10971677"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.2307\/3616786","article-title":"Numerical recipes\u2014The art of scientific computing, by W. H. Press, B. P. Flannery, S. A. Teukolsky and W. T. Vetterling. Pp 818. \u00a325. 1986. ISBN 0-521-30811-9 (Cambridge University Press)","volume":"71","author":"Planitz","year":"1987","journal-title":"Math. Gaz."}],"container-title":["Computers"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-431X\/14\/11\/465\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,29]],"date-time":"2025-10-29T04:54:27Z","timestamp":1761713667000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-431X\/14\/11\/465"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,28]]},"references-count":52,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11]]}},"alternative-id":["computers14110465"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/computers14110465","relation":{},"ISSN":["2073-431X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2073-431X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,28]]}}}