{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,3]],"date-time":"2026-01-03T05:23:14Z","timestamp":1767417794457,"version":"3.48.0"},"reference-count":39,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,1]],"date-time":"2026-01-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1767225600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003093","name":"Ministry of Higher Education Malaysia","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["FRGS\/1\/2021\/TK0\/UNIMAP\/02\/6"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["FRGS\/1\/2021\/TK0\/UNIMAP\/02\/6"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003093","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004707","name":"Universiti Malaysia Perlis","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004707","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Computers"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Image noise degrades image quality in applications such as medical imaging, surveillance, and remote sensing, where real-time processing and high accuracy are critical. Software-based denoising can be flexible, but often suffers from latency and low throughput when deployed on embedded or edge systems. A Field Programmable Gate Array (FPGA)-based system offers parallelism and lower latency, but the existing work typically focusses on fixed architectures rather than scalable framework supporting multiple filter models. This paper presents a high-performance, resource-efficient FPGA-based framework for real-time noise reduction. The modular, pipelined architecture integrates median and adaptive filters, managed by a state machine-based control unit to enhance processing efficiency. Implemented on a Cyclone V FPGA using Quartus Prime 22.1std, the system provides scalability through adjustable Random Access Memory (RAM) and supports multiple denoising algorithms. Tested on Leena images with salt-and-pepper noise, it processes 10% noise in 1.724 ms in a simulated environment running at 800 MHz; it was compared with Python version 3.11.2 with the OpenCV-library version 4.8.076 on a general-purpose Central Processing Unit (CPU) (0.0201 ms). The proposed solution demonstrates low latency and high throughput, making it well-suited for embedded and edge computing applications.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/computers15010013","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,2]],"date-time":"2026-01-02T09:18:56Z","timestamp":1767345536000},"page":"13","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["FPGA Modular Scalability Framework for Real-Time Noise Reduction in Images"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Ng","family":"Boon Khai","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Intelligent Computing, University Malaysia Perlis, Arau 02600, Perlis, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-3593-7278","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Norfadila","family":"Mahrom","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Intelligent Computing, University Malaysia Perlis, Arau 02600, Perlis, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Rafikha Aliana A.","family":"Raof","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Intelligent Computing, University Malaysia Perlis, Arau 02600, Perlis, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Teo","family":"Sje Yin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Intelligent Computing, University Malaysia Perlis, Arau 02600, Perlis, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3057-5721","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Phaklen","family":"Ehkan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Intelligent Computing, University Malaysia Perlis, Arau 02600, Perlis, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gonzalez, R.C., and Woods, R.E. 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