{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,12]],"date-time":"2026-06-12T17:58:14Z","timestamp":1781287094702,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":54,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,18]],"date-time":"2026-01-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1768694400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Computers"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Videogames (VGs) are highly attractive for children and young people. Although videogames were once viewed mainly as sources of distraction and leisure, they are now widely recognised as powerful tools for competence development across diverse domains. Designing and implementing a videogame is even more appealing for children and novice students than merely playing it, but developing programming competencies using a text-based language often constitutes a significant barrier to entry. This article presents the implementation and evaluation of a videogame development experience with university students using the Unity engine and its Visual Scripting block-based tool. Students worked in teams and successfully completed videogame projects, demonstrating substantial gains in programming and game construction skills. The adopted methodology facilitated learning, collaboration, and engagement. Building on a quasi-experimental design that compared a prior unit based on C# and MonoGame with a subsequent unit based on Unity Visual Scripting, the study analyses differences in performance, development effort, and motivational indicators. The results show statistically significant improvements in grades, reduced development time for core mechanics, and higher self-reported confidence when Visual Scripting is employed. The evidence supports the view of Visual Scripting as an effective educational strategy to introduce programming concepts without the syntactic and semantic barriers of traditional text-based languages. The findings further suggest that Unity Visual Scripting can act as a didactic bridge towards advanced programming, and that its adoption in secondary and primary education is promising both for reinforcing traditional subjects (history, language, mathematics) and for fostering foundational programming and videogame development skills in an inclusive manner.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/computers15010068","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,19]],"date-time":"2026-01-19T14:58:54Z","timestamp":1768834734000},"page":"68","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Videogame Programming &amp; Education: Enhancing Programming Skills Through Unity Visual Scripting"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-4310-1091","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"\u00c1lvaro","family":"Villag\u00f3mez-Palacios","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Facultad de Ciencias e Ingenier\u00edas, Universidad Estatal de Milagro, Milagro 091050, Ecuador"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-1694-7756","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Claudia De la","family":"Fuente-Burdiles","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Interactive Visualization and Virtual Reality, Faculty of Engineering, University of Talca, Talca 3460000, Chile"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1600-3447","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Cristian","family":"Vidal-Silva","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Interactive Visualization and Virtual Reality, Faculty of Engineering, University of Talca, Talca 3460000, Chile"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6669","DOI":"10.1007\/s10639-022-10893-0","article-title":"Algorithmic thinking development through physical computing activities with Arduino in STEM education","volume":"27","year":"2022","journal-title":"Educ. Inf. Technol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1145\/1118178.1118215","article-title":"Computational thinking","volume":"49","author":"Wing","year":"2006","journal-title":"Commun. ACM"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14181","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2021.3051043","article-title":"Characterizing visual programming approaches for end-user developers: A systematic review","volume":"9","author":"Kuhail","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Barolli, L., Natwichai, J., and Enokido, T. (2021). End-to-end data pipeline in games for real-time data analytics. Advances in Internet, Data and Web Technologies, Springer. Lecture Notes on Data Engineering and Communications Technologies.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-70639-5"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62051","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2023.3286695","article-title":"Serious games and ai: Challenges and opportunities for computational social science","volume":"11","author":"Castro","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"827","DOI":"10.1109\/TLT.2022.3200583","article-title":"Serious game design in health education: A systematic review","volume":"15","author":"Tori","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Learn. Technol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vidal-Silva, C., Serrano-Malebran, J., and Pereira, F. (2019, January 4\u20139). Scratch and arduino for effectively developing programming and computing-electronic competences in primary school children. Proceedings of the 2019 38th International Conference of the Chilean Computer Science Society (SCCC), Concepcion, Chile.","DOI":"10.1109\/SCCC49216.2019.8966401"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118924","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2024.3449228","article-title":"Developing programming competencies in school-students with block-based tools in chile, ecuador, and peru","volume":"12","year":"2024","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21471","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2025.3536279","article-title":"Applying the block-based programming language alice for developing programming competencies in university students","volume":"13","year":"2025","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29222","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2021.3059516","article-title":"Teaching soft skills in engineering education: An european perspective","volume":"9","author":"Tsalapatas","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Faisal, N., Chadhar, M., Goriss-Hunter, A., and Stranieri, A. (2022). Business simulation games in higher education: A systematic review of empirical research. Hum. Behav. Emerg. Technol., 1578791.","DOI":"10.1155\/2022\/1578791"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gonz\u00e1lez-P\u00e9rez, L.I., and Ram\u00edrez-Montoya, M.S. (2022). Components of education 4.0 in 21st century skills frameworks: Systematic review. Sustainability, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/su14031493"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"416","DOI":"10.1007\/s12528-021-09305-y","article-title":"A scoping review of computational thinking assessments in higher education","volume":"34","author":"Lu","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Comput. High. Educ."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81154","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2020.2990980","article-title":"Building a comprehensive automated programming assessment system","volume":"8","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1436","DOI":"10.1177\/07356331211057819","article-title":"Assessing computational thinking: Development and validation of the algorithmic thinking test for adults","volume":"60","author":"Hardebolle","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Educ. Comput. Res."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"88121","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2021.3089560","article-title":"A systematic mapping of introductory programming languages for novice learners","volume":"9","author":"Perera","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1067","DOI":"10.1007\/s11423-023-10328-8","article-title":"Block-based versus text-based programming: A comparison of learners\u2019 programming behaviors, computational thinking skills and attitudes toward programming","volume":"72","author":"Sun","year":"2024","journal-title":"Educ. Technol. Res. Dev."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"60","DOI":"10.1145\/1592761.1592779","article-title":"Scratch: Programming for all","volume":"52","author":"Resnick","year":"2009","journal-title":"Commun. ACM"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rojas-Vald\u00e9s, P., Vidal-Silva, C., and Fuente, C.d.L. (2022, January 28\u201330). Successful development of problem-solving and computing programming competences in children using arduino. Proceedings of the 2022 International Symposium on Measurement and Control in Robotics (ISMCR), Online Seminar.","DOI":"10.1109\/ISMCR56534.2022.9950596"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Castillo-Salvatierra, L., C\u00e1rdenas-Cobo, J., de la Fuente-Burdiles, C., and Vidal-Silva, C. (2025). Programming competencies in university students through game development. Front. Educ., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/feduc.2025.1585602"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Villagomez-Palacios, A., Cardenas-Cobo, J., de la Fuente-Burdiles, C., and Vidal-Silva, C. (Form. Univ., 2026). Video games and higher education: Enhancing programming learning with unity visual scripting, Form. Univ., in press.","DOI":"10.3390\/computers15010068"},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Hanrahan, R. (2023). Designing a Computer Game to Teach Computer Science Concepts, Wellington Faculty of Engineering Symposium. Available online: https:\/\/ojs.victoria.ac.nz\/wfes\/article\/view\/8405."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sim, T.Y., and Lau, S.L. (2022, January 14\u201316). Review on challenges and solutions in novice programming education. Proceedings of the 2022 IEEE International Conference on Computing (ICOCO), Kota Kinabalu, Malaysia.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICOCO56118.2022.10031657"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"440","DOI":"10.1109\/TE.2021.3127215","article-title":"Cognitive load theory in the context of teaching and learning computer programming: A systematic literature review","volume":"65","author":"Berssanette","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Educ."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123588","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2021.3110475","article-title":"Applying game learning analytics to a voluntary video game: Intrinsic motivation, persistence, and rewards in learning to program at an early age","volume":"9","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106568","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2022.3211973","article-title":"Developing computing competencies without restrictions","volume":"10","author":"Barriga","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ju\u0161kevi\u010dien\u0117, A. (2020). Developing Algorithmic Thinking Through Computational Making, Springer International Publishing.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-39250-5_10"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dehbozorgi, N., and Roopaei, M. (2024, January 9). Improving computational thinking competencies in STEM higher education. Proceedings of the 2024 IEEE Integrated STEM Education Conference (ISEC), Princeton, NJ, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/ISEC61299.2024.10664997"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pirzado, F.A., Ahmed, A., Hussain, S., Ibarra-V\u00e1zquez, G., and Terashima-Marin, H. (2025). Assessing computational thinking in engineering and computer science students: A multi-method approach. Educ. Sci., 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/educsci15030344"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2857","DOI":"10.1109\/TSE.2021.3070692","article-title":"Software engineering for internet of things: The practitioners\u2019 perspective","volume":"48","author":"Fahmideh","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Softw. Eng."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3732791","DOI":"10.1145\/3732791","article-title":"Effects of worked examples with explanation types and learner motivation on cognitive load and programming problem-solving performance","volume":"25","author":"Chen","year":"2025","journal-title":"ACM Trans. Comput. Educ."},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"36","article-title":"Interaction patterns during block-based programming activities predict computational thinking: Analysis of the differences in gender, cognitive load, spatial ability, and programming proficiency","volume":"3","author":"Yusuf","year":"2024","journal-title":"AI Comput. Sci. Robot. Technol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2361","DOI":"10.1007\/s10639-024-12869-8","article-title":"Redefining computational thinking: Synergizing unplugged activities with block-based programming","volume":"30","author":"Batni","year":"2025","journal-title":"Educ. Inf. Technol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tramonti, M., Dochshanov, A.M., and Zhumabayeva, A.S. (2023). Design thinking as an auxiliary tool for educational robotics classes. Appl. Sci., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/app13020858"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"W\u00f6rister, F., and Knobelsdorf, M. (2025, January 22\u201325). Block-based programming in low-level computing: How blocks facilitate learning assembler. Proceedings of the 2025 IEEE Global Engineering Education Conference (EDUCON), London, UK.","DOI":"10.1109\/EDUCON62633.2025.11016338"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zamorano, M., Blasco, D., Cetina, C., and Sarro, F. (May, January 27). Video game procedural content generation through software transplantation. Proceedings of the 2025 IEEE\/ACM 47th International Conference on Software Engineering: Software Engineering in Practice (ICSE-SEIP), Ottawa, ON, Canada.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICSE-SEIP66354.2025.00037"},{"key":"ref_37","first-page":"73","article-title":"Unity game development engine: A technical survey","volume":"4","author":"Hussain","year":"2020","journal-title":"Univ. Sindh J. Inf. Commun. Technol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Takoordyal, K. (2020). Introduction to Unity, Apress.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4842-6002-9_2"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jangra, S., Singh, G., Mantri, A., Angra, S., and Sharma, B. (2023, January 6\u20138). Interactivity development using Unity 3D software and C# programming. Proceedings of the 2023 14th International Conference on Computing Communication and Networking Technologies (ICCCNT), Delhi, India.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCCNT56998.2023.10308030"},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"Tykoski, S. (2022). Mastering Game Design with Unity 2021: Immersive Workflows, Visual Scripting, Physics Engine, GameObjects, Player Progression, Publishing, and a Lot More, BPB Publications. [English ed.]. Available online: https:\/\/books.google.cl\/books?id=P-ybEAAAQBAJ."},{"key":"ref_41","first-page":"133","article-title":"Observation on the use of visual scripting for interaction design students","volume":"9","author":"Martyastiadi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Creat. Arts Stud."},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"(2024, August 01). Using Bolt to Improve Game Development\u2014Alexis Bacot. Available online: https:\/\/www.alexisbacot.com\/blog\/using-bolt-to-visualize-state-machines."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"(2024, August 01). Unity Acquires Bolt\u2014Community Showcases\u2014Unity Discussions. Available online: https:\/\/discussions.unity.com\/t\/unity-acquires-bolt\/788469?page=5."},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"(2024, August 01). Secuencias de Comandos Visuales de Unity. Available online: https:\/\/unity.com\/es\/features\/unity-visual-scripting."},{"key":"ref_45","first-page":"307","article-title":"Guide for constructing self-efficacy scales","volume":"Volume 5","author":"Pajares","year":"2006","journal-title":"Self-Efficacy Beliefs of Adolescents"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.4067\/S0718-50062015000400004","article-title":"Experiencias pr\u00e1cticas con el uso del lenguaje de programaci\u00f3n Scratch para desarrollar el pensamiento algor\u00edtmico de estudiantes en Chile","volume":"8","author":"Vidal","year":"2015","journal-title":"Form. Univ."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1183","DOI":"10.1111\/bjet.12314","article-title":"Game-based learning engagement: A theory- and data-driven exploration","volume":"47","author":"Ke","year":"2016","journal-title":"Br. J. Educ. Technol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2016.03.011","article-title":"Visual behavior, flow and achievement in game-based learning","volume":"98","author":"Tsai","year":"2016","journal-title":"Comput. Educ."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"891","DOI":"10.1177\/0735633119887187","article-title":"Persistence in a game-based learning environment: The case of elementary school students learning computational thinking","volume":"58","author":"Hershkovitz","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Educ. Comput. Res."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6499","DOI":"10.1007\/s10639-021-10617-w","article-title":"Trends and development in research on computational thinking","volume":"26","author":"Tekdal","year":"2021","journal-title":"Educ. Inf. Technol."},{"key":"ref_51","first-page":"1","article-title":"Advancing computational thinking education: Insights from systems thinking applications","volume":"44","author":"Hamidi","year":"2025","journal-title":"Hum. Syst. Manag."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"500","DOI":"10.1109\/TLT.2022.3226661","article-title":"A systematic literature review of game-based assessment studies: Trends and challenges","volume":"16","author":"Gomez","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Learn. Technol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e54075","DOI":"10.2196\/54075","article-title":"Identifying key principles and commonalities in digital serious game design frameworks: Scoping review","volume":"13","author":"Maxim","year":"2025","journal-title":"JMIR Serious Games"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zaphiris, P., and Ioannou, A. (2021). Completeness and collaboration in the early design phase of learning games: Do ideation cards provide scaffolding?. Learning and Collaboration Technologies: Games and Virtual Environments for Learning, Springer International Publishing.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-77943-6_7"}],"container-title":["Computers"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-431X\/15\/1\/68\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,22]],"date-time":"2026-01-22T05:31:39Z","timestamp":1769059899000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-431X\/15\/1\/68"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,18]]},"references-count":54,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1]]}},"alternative-id":["computers15010068"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/computers15010068","relation":{},"ISSN":["2073-431X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2073-431X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,18]]}}}