{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,23]],"date-time":"2026-01-23T09:38:52Z","timestamp":1769161132226,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":55,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2018,3,26]],"date-time":"2018-03-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1522022400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Computers"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In this paper, the study and modelling of a lithium-ion battery cell is presented. To test the considered cell, a battery testing system was built using two programmable power units: an electronic load and a power supply. To communicate with them, a software\/hardware interface was implemented within the National Instruments (NI) LabVIEW environment. This dedicated laboratory equipment can be used to apply charging\/discharging cycles according to user defined load profiles. The battery modelling and the parameters identification procedure are described. The model was used to estimate the State Of Charge (SOC) under dynamic loading conditions. The most spread techniques used in the field of battery modelling and SOC estimation are implemented and compared.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/computers7020020","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,3,26]],"date-time":"2018-03-26T12:08:25Z","timestamp":1522066105000},"page":"20","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":34,"title":["Battery Modelling and Simulation Using a Programmable Testing Equipment"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"7","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3655-012X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Elena","family":"Vergori","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering (DIMEAS), Politecnico di Torino, Corso Duca degli Abruzzi 24, Torino 10129, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2984-8155","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Francesco","family":"Mocera","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering (DIMEAS), Politecnico di Torino, Corso Duca degli Abruzzi 24, Torino 10129, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1111-3305","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Aurelio","family":"Som\u00e0","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering (DIMEAS), Politecnico di Torino, Corso Duca degli Abruzzi 24, Torino 10129, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,3,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"247","DOI":"10.1109\/5.989873","article-title":"The State of the Art of Electric and Hybrid Vehicles","volume":"90","author":"Chan","year":"2002","journal-title":"Proc. IEEE"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5130","DOI":"10.1109\/TIA.2016.2595504","article-title":"Hybridization factor and performance of hybrid electric telehandler vehicle","volume":"52","author":"Bruzzese","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mocera, F., and Som\u00e0, A. (2017). Study of a Hardware-In-the-Loop bench for hybrid electric working vehicles simulation. Ecol. Veh. Renew. Energies (EVER), 1\u20138.","DOI":"10.1109\/EVER.2017.7935880"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5086","DOI":"10.1109\/TIA.2016.2585539","article-title":"An Advanced HIL Simulation Battery Model for Battery Management System Testing","volume":"52","author":"Barreras","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.1016\/j.electacta.2012.03.172","article-title":"Current status of hybrid, battery and fuel cell electric vehicles: From electrochemistry to market prospects","volume":"84","author":"Polleta","year":"2012","journal-title":"Electrochim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"252","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mattod.2014.10.040","article-title":"Li-ion battery materials: Present and future","volume":"18","author":"Nitta","year":"2015","journal-title":"Mater. Today"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"685","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rser.2016.10.019","article-title":"Can Li-Ion batteries be the panacea for automotive applications?","volume":"68","author":"Opitza","year":"2017","journal-title":"Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"473","DOI":"10.1016\/j.electacta.2012.09.042","article-title":"Comparison of commercial battery cells in relation to material properties","volume":"87","author":"Mulder","year":"2013","journal-title":"Electrochim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1149\/2.F09163if","article-title":"Lithium and Lithium-Ion Batteries: Challenges and Prospects","volume":"25","author":"Passerini","year":"2016","journal-title":"Electrochem. Soc. Interface"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"210","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpowsour.2012.02.038","article-title":"Thermal runaway caused fire and explosion of lithium ion battery","volume":"208","author":"Wang","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Power Sources"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"A1905","DOI":"10.1149\/2.0921509jes","article-title":"Experimental Analysis of Thermal Runaway and Propagation in Lithium-Ion Battery Modules","volume":"162","author":"Lopez","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Electrochem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Collet, A., Cr\u00e9bier, J.-C., and Chureau, A. (2011). Multi-Cell Battery Emulator for Advanced Battery Management System Benchmarking. IEEE Int. Symp. Ind. Electron., 1093\u20131099.","DOI":"10.1109\/ISIE.2011.5984312"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"272","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpowsour.2012.10.060","article-title":"A review on the key issues for lithium-ion battery management in electric vehicles","volume":"226","author":"Lu","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Power Sources"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chang, W.-Y. (2013). The State of Charge Estimating Methods for Battery: A Review. ISRN Appl. Math., 1\u20137.","DOI":"10.1155\/2013\/953792"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"359","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpowsour.2011.10.013","article-title":"A comparative study of equivalent circuit models for Li-ion batteries","volume":"198","author":"Hu","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Power Sources"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpowsour.2017.11.094","article-title":"Investigating the error sources of the online state of charge estimation methods for lithium-ion batteries in electric vehicles","volume":"377","author":"Zheng","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Power Sources"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apenergy.2016.11.057","article-title":"System state estimation and optimal energy control framework for multicell lithium-ion battery system","volume":"187","author":"Wei","year":"2017","journal-title":"Appl. Energy"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpowsour.2016.01.001","article-title":"Modelling and experimental evaluation of parallel connected lithium ion cells for an electric vehicle battery system","volume":"310","author":"Bruen","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Power Sources"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"252","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpowsour.2004.02.031","article-title":"Extended Kalman filtering for battery management systems of LiPB-based HEV battery packs. Part 2. Modeling and identification","volume":"134","author":"Plett","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Power Sources"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpowsour.2004.02.033","article-title":"Extended Kalman filtering for battery management systems of LiPB-based HEV battery packs. Part 3. State and parameter estimation","volume":"134","author":"Plett","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Power Sources"},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Hunt, G. (1996). USABC Electric Vehicle Battery Test Procedures Manual."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"(2013). FreedomCAR Battery Test Manual for Power-Assist Hybrid Electric Vehicles."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chaoui, H., and Mandalapu, S. (2017). Comparative Study of Online Open Circuit Voltage Estimation Techniques for State of Charge Estimation of Lithium-Ion Batteries. Batteries, 3.","DOI":"10.3390\/batteries3020012"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1016\/j.energy.2016.12.110","article-title":"Influence analysis of static and dynamic fast-charging current profiles on ageing performance of commercial lithium-ion batteries","volume":"120","author":"Trad","year":"2017","journal-title":"Energy"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1016\/j.est.2016.02.005","article-title":"Charging protocols for lithium-ion batteries and their impact on cycle life\u2014An experimental study with different 18650 high-power cells","volume":"6","author":"Keil","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Energy Storage"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"569","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apenergy.2016.10.059","article-title":"Charging optimization in lithium-ion batteries based on temperature rise and charge time","volume":"194","author":"Zhang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Appl. Energy"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"513","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apenergy.2016.09.010","article-title":"Influence of different open circuit voltage tests on state of charge online estimation for lithium-ion batteries","volume":"183","author":"Zheng","year":"2016","journal-title":"Appl. Energy"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nedjalkov, A., Meyer, J., K\u00f6hring, M., Doering, A., Angelmahr, M., Dahle, S., Sander, A., Fischer, A., and Schade, W. (2016). Toxic Gas Emissions from Damaged Lithium Ion Batteries\u2014Analysis and Safety Enhancement Solution. Batteries, 2.","DOI":"10.3390\/batteries2010005"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Larsson, F., Andersson, P., and Mellander, B.-E. (2016). Lithium-Ion Battery Aspects on Fires in Electrified Vehicles on the Basis of Experimental Abuse Tests. Batteries, 2.","DOI":"10.3390\/batteries2020009"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1427","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rser.2017.05.195","article-title":"A review of international abuse testing standards and regulations for lithium ion batteries in electric and hybrid electric vehicles","volume":"81","author":"Ruiz","year":"2018","journal-title":"Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"A3154","DOI":"10.1149\/2.0961713jes","article-title":"Electrochemical, Post-Mortem, and ARC Analysis of Li-Ion Cell Safety in Second-Life Applications","volume":"164","author":"Waldmann","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Electrochem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"425","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jfranklin.2014.04.018","article-title":"Powertrain architectures of electrified vehicles: Review, classification and comparison","volume":"352","author":"Wu","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Frankl. Inst."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1305","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enconman.2010.09.028","article-title":"A comprehensive overview of hybrid electric vehicle: Powertrain configurations, powertrain control techniques and electronic control units","volume":"52","author":"Bayindir","year":"2011","journal-title":"Energy Convers. Manag."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpowsour.2006.10.090","article-title":"Energy storage devices for future hybrid electric vehicles","volume":"168","author":"Karden","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Power Sources"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"834","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rser.2017.05.001","article-title":"A review of lithium-ion battery state of charge estimation and management system in electric vehicle applications: Challenges and recommendations","volume":"78","author":"Hannan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Orcioni, S., Buccolini, L., Ricci, A., and Conti, M. (2017). Lithium-ion Battery Electrothermal Model, Parameter Estimation, and Simulation Environment. Energies, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/en10030375"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"974","DOI":"10.1109\/TVLSI.2016.2611526","article-title":"Modular Active Charge Balancing for Scalable Battery Packs","volume":"25","author":"Narayanaswamy","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Trans.Very Large Scale Integr. (VLSI) Syst."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1350","DOI":"10.1109\/TIE.2016.2611488","article-title":"Fast Model Predictive Control for Redistributive Lithium-Ion Battery Balancing","volume":"64","author":"McCurlie","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"281","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpowsour.2017.03.001","article-title":"On state-of-charge determination for lithium-ion batteries","volume":"348","author":"Li","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Power Sources"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"336","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apenergy.2017.05.183","article-title":"A novel method on estimating the degradation and state of charge of lithium-ion batteries used for electrical vehicles","volume":"207","author":"Yang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Appl. Energy"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stroe, D.-I., Swierczynski, M., Stroe, A.-I., and Knudsen K\u00e6r, S. (2016). Generalized Characterization Methodology for Performance Modelling of Lithium-Ion Batteries. Batteries, 2.","DOI":"10.3390\/batteries2040037"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"572","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rser.2015.11.042","article-title":"Critical review of state of health estimation methods of Li-ion batteries for real applications","volume":"56","author":"Berecibar","year":"2016","journal-title":"Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpowsour.2015.01.129","article-title":"Critical review of on-board capacity estimation techniques for lithium-ion batteries in electric and hybrid electric vehicles","volume":"281","author":"Farmann","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Power Sources"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpowsour.2016.08.031","article-title":"A comprehensive review of on-board State-of-Available-Power prediction techniques for lithium-ion batteries in electric vehicles","volume":"329","author":"Farmann","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Power Sources"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"509","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpowsour.2016.05.068","article-title":"Calculation of the state of safety (SOS) for lithium ion batteries","volume":"324","author":"Niedermeier","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Power Sources"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"566","DOI":"10.1016\/j.electacta.2017.10.153","article-title":"A comparative study of different equivalent circuit models for estimating state-of-charge of lithium-ion batteries","volume":"259","author":"Lai","year":"2018","journal-title":"Electrochim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enconman.2012.04.014","article-title":"Comparison study on the battery models used for the energy management of batteries in electric vehicles","volume":"64","author":"He","year":"2012","journal-title":"Energy Convers. Manag."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"266","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpowsour.2003.12.001","article-title":"Rapid test and nonlinear model characterisation of solid-state lithium-ion batteries","volume":"130","author":"Doerffel","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Power Sources"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huria, T., Ceraolo, M., Gazzarri, J., and Jackey, R. (2013). Simplified Extended Kalman Filter Observer for SOC Estimation of Commercial Power-Oriented LFP Lithium Battery Cells. SAE Tech. Pap.","DOI":"10.4271\/2013-01-1544"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, A., Pelissier, S., Venet, P., and Gyan, P. (2016). Fast Characterization Method for Modeling Battery Relaxation Voltage. Batteries, 2.","DOI":"10.3390\/batteries2020007"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpowsour.2013.10.079","article-title":"State of charge estimation of high power lithium iron phosphate cells","volume":"249","author":"Huria","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Power Sources"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"387","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apenergy.2015.11.072","article-title":"A comparative study of three model-based algorithms for estimating state-of-charge of lithium-ion batteries under a new combined dynamic loading profile","volume":"164","author":"Yang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Appl. Energy"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpowsour.2012.06.005","article-title":"Robustness analysis of State-of-Charge estimation methods for two types of Li-ion batteries","volume":"217","author":"Hua","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Power Sources"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2026","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apenergy.2015.09.015","article-title":"On-line battery state-of-charge estimation based on an integrated estimator","volume":"185","author":"Wang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Appl. Energy"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"805","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpowsour.2013.06.076","article-title":"A robust state-of-charge estimator for multiple types of lithium-ion batteries using adaptive extended Kalman filter","volume":"243","author":"Xiong","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Power Sources"}],"container-title":["Computers"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-431X\/7\/2\/20\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T14:58:35Z","timestamp":1760194715000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-431X\/7\/2\/20"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2018,3,26]]},"references-count":55,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,6]]}},"alternative-id":["computers7020020"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/computers7020020","relation":{},"ISSN":["2073-431X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2073-431X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2018,3,26]]}}}