{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,16]],"date-time":"2026-03-16T06:06:15Z","timestamp":1773641175099,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":101,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2018,10,1]],"date-time":"2018-10-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1538352000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Computers"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Open source software (OSS) security has been the focus of the security community and practitioners over the past decades. However, the number of new vulnerabilities keeps increasing in today\u2019s OSS systems. With today\u2019s increasingly important and complex OSS, lacking software security knowledge to handle security vulnerabilities in OSS development will result in more breaches that are serious in the future. Learning software security is a difficult and challenging task since the domain is quite context specific and the real project situation is necessary to apply the security concepts within the specific system. Many OSS proponents believe that the OSS community offers significant learning opportunities from its best practices. However, studies that specifically explore security knowledge sharing and learning in OSS communities are scarce. This research is intended to fill this gap by empirically investigating factors that affect knowledge sharing and learning about software security and the relationship among them. A conceptual model is proposed that helps to conceptualize the linkage between socio-technical practices and software security learning processes in OSS communities. A questionnaire and statistical analytical techniques were employed to test hypothesized relationships in the model to gain a better understanding of this research topic.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/computers7040049","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,10,2]],"date-time":"2018-10-02T08:23:50Z","timestamp":1538468630000},"page":"49","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["An Empirical Study on Security Knowledge Sharing and Learning in Open Source Software Communities"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"7","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6228-8367","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Shao-Fang","family":"Wen","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Information Security and Communication Technology, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, 2815 Gjovik, Norway"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,10,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"NorthBridge, B. (2018, June 11). Future of Open Source Survey, Electronic Document. Available online: https:\/\/www.slideshare.net\/blackducksoftware\/2016-future-of-open-source-survey-results."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"BlackDuck Software (2018, June 11). Open Source Security and Risk Analysis. Available online: https:\/\/www.blackducksoftware.com\/open-source-security-risk-analysis-2017.","DOI":"10.1016\/S1353-4858(18)30051-5"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"248","DOI":"10.1093\/oxrep\/17.2.248","article-title":"Open-source software development and distributed innovation","volume":"17","author":"Kogut","year":"2001","journal-title":"Oxf. Rev. Econ. Policy"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1177\/1350507606063442","article-title":"Learning and knowledge-building in open-source communities: A social-experiential approach","volume":"37","author":"Hemetsberger","year":"2006","journal-title":"Manag. Learn."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1002\/spip.255","article-title":"Understanding free\/open source software development processes","volume":"11","author":"Scacchi","year":"2006","journal-title":"Softw. Process Improv. Pract."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Feller, J., and Fitzgerald, B. (2002). Understanding Open Source Software Development, Addison-Wesley."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"Feller, J., Finnegan, P., Kelly, D., and MacNamara, M. (2006). Developing open source software: A community-based analysis of research. Social Inclusion: Societal and Organizational Implications for Information Systems, Springer."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wen, S.-F. (2017, January 6\u201310). Software Security in Open Source Development: A Systematic Literature Review. Proceedings of the 21st Conference of Open Innovations Association (FRUCT), Helsinki, Finland.","DOI":"10.23919\/FRUCT.2017.8250205"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1016\/S1353-4858(16)30048-4","article-title":"Know your open source code","volume":"2016","author":"Pittenger","year":"2016","journal-title":"Netw. Secur."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Levy, J. (2017, February 22). Top Open Source Security Vulnerabilities, WhiteSource Blog. Available online: https:\/\/www.whitesourcesoftware.com\/whitesource-blog\/open-source-security-vulnerability\/."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1109\/MSP.2005.45","article-title":"Knowledge for software security","volume":"3","author":"Barnum","year":"2005","journal-title":"IEEE Secur. Priv."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"McGraw, G. (2006). Software Security: Building Security in, Addison-Wesley Professional.","DOI":"10.1109\/ISSRE.2006.43"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1287\/orsc.14.2.209.14992","article-title":"Open source software and the private-collective innovation model: Issues for organization science","volume":"14","author":"Hippel","year":"2003","journal-title":"Organ. Sci."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"923","DOI":"10.1016\/S0048-7333(02)00095-1","article-title":"How open source software works:free user-to-user assistance","volume":"32","author":"Lakhani","year":"2003","journal-title":"Res. Policy"},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Cerone, A., and Sowe, S.K. (2010). Using free\/libre open source software projects as e-learning tools. Electron. Commun. EASST, 33."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Fernandes, S., Martinho, M.H., Cerone, A., and Barbosa, L.S. (November, January 30). Integrating Formal and Informal Learning through A FLOSS-Based Innovative Approach. Proceedings of the International Conference on Collaboration and Technology, Wellington, New Zealand."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1108\/13673270710728222","article-title":"Knowledge sharing: Moving away from the obsession with best practices","volume":"11","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Knowl. Manag."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Park, H.S., and Im, B.-C. (, January July). A Study on the Knowledge Sharing Behavior of Local Public Servants in Korea: Structural Equation Analysis. Proceedings of the Joint Conference of the Tenth International Conference on Advances in Managerment, Seoul, Korean. Available online: http:\/\/www.dbpia.co.kr\/Journal\/ArticleDetail\/NODE06711930."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1142\/S0219649202000169","article-title":"Factors impacting knowledge sharing","volume":"1","author":"Lee","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Inf. Knowl. Manag."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Koulopoulos, T.M., and Frappaolo, C. (1999). Smart Things to Know about Knowledge Management, Capstone Press."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"429","DOI":"10.1080\/713698499","article-title":"From know-how to show-how? Questioning the role of information and communication technologies in knowledge transfer","volume":"12","author":"Roberts","year":"2000","journal-title":"Technol. Anal. Strateg. Manag."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Nonaka, I. (2008). The Knowledge-Creating Company, Harvard Business Review Press."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Van den Hooff, B., Elving, W., Meeuwsen, J.M., and Dumoulin, C. (2003). Knowledge sharing in knowledge communities. Communities and Technologies, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-94-017-0115-0_7"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1133","DOI":"10.1002\/smj.631","article-title":"Different knowledge, different benefits: Toward a productivity perspective on knowledge sharing in organizations","volume":"28","author":"Haas","year":"2007","journal-title":"Strateg. Manag. J."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.1080\/09585190500404614","article-title":"Determinants of individual engagement in knowledge sharing","volume":"17","author":"Cabrera","year":"2006","journal-title":"Int. J. Hum. Resour. Manag."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wasko, M.M., and Faraj, S. (2005). Why should I share? Examining social capital and knowledge contribution in electronic networks of practice. MIS Q., 35\u201357.","DOI":"10.2307\/25148667"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"146","DOI":"10.5465\/amr.2005.15281445","article-title":"Social capital, networks, and knowledge transfer","volume":"30","author":"Inkpen","year":"2005","journal-title":"Acad. Manag. Rev."},{"key":"ref_28","first-page":"21","article-title":"Developing Country Perspectives on Software: Intellectual Property and Open Source","volume":"3","author":"Shen","year":"2007","journal-title":"Stand. Res. Inf. Technol. New Perspect."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1108\/13673270710752135","article-title":"Tacit knowledge sharing, self-efficacy theory, and application to the Open Source community","volume":"11","author":"Endres","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Knowl. Manag."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Figueiredo, D.A., and Paula, A. (2005). A constructivist view of knowledge management in open source virtual communities. Managing Learning in Virtual Settings: The Role of Context, Idea Group Inc."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mirbel, I. (2009, January 6\u201310). OFLOSSC, an Ontology for Supporting Open Source Development Communities. Proceedings of the ICEIS, Milan, Italy.","DOI":"10.5220\/0001860900470052"},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Hemetsberger, A., and Reinhardt, C. (2004, January 2\u20133). Sharing and Creating Knowledge in Open-Source Communities: The Case of KDE. Proceedings of the Paper for Fifth European Conference on Organizational Knowledge, Learning, and Capabilities, Innsbruck, Austria."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lave, J., and Wenger, E. (1991). Situated Learning: Legitimate Peripheral Participation, Cambridge University Press.","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511815355"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1177\/135050840072002","article-title":"Communities of practice and social learning systems","volume":"7","author":"Wenger","year":"2000","journal-title":"Organization"},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Lanzara, G.F., and Morner, M. (2003, January 3). The knowledge ecology of open-source software projects. Proceedings of the 19th EGOS Colloquium, Copenhagen, Denmark."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"98","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2012.12.002","article-title":"Learning and best practices for learning in open-source software communities","volume":"63","author":"Singh","year":"2013","journal-title":"Comput. Educ."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"431","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jss.2007.03.086","article-title":"Understanding knowledge sharing activities in free\/open source software projects: An empirical study","volume":"81","author":"Sowe","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Syst. Softw."},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"Sowe, S.K., Ghosh, R., and Soete, L. (2009, January 18). Annals of Knowledge Sharing in Distributed Software Development Environments: Experience from Open Source Software Projects. Proceedings of the 33rd Annual IEEE Software Engineering Workshop, Sk\u00f6vde, Sweden."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"553","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijinfomgt.2013.01.008","article-title":"Knowledge sharing in open source software project teams: A transactive memory system perspective","volume":"33","author":"Chen","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Inf. Manag."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"791","DOI":"10.1108\/JKM-10-2014-0446","article-title":"Knowledge sharing in open source software communities: Motivations and management","volume":"19","author":"Iskoujina","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Knowl. Manag."},{"key":"ref_41","first-page":"117","article-title":"Mechanisms of knowledge sharing in open source software projects: A comparison of Chinese and Western practice","volume":"11","author":"Chen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Technol. Intell. Plan."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1080\/09537325.2016.1194387","article-title":"Managing knowledge sharing in distributed innovation from the perspective of developers: Empirical study of open source software projects in China","volume":"29","author":"Chen","year":"2017","journal-title":"Technol. Anal. Strateg. Manag."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1016\/j.im.2008.09.004","article-title":"Virtual organizational learning in open source software development projects","volume":"46","author":"Au","year":"2009","journal-title":"Inf. Manag."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1287\/orsc.8.1.71","article-title":"The situated nature of adaptive learning in organizations","volume":"8","author":"Tyre","year":"1997","journal-title":"Organ. Sci."},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"Hardi, J. (2010). Situated Learning among Open Source Software Developers: The Case of Google Chrome Project. [Master\u2019s Thesis, Blekinge Institute of Technology]. Available online: http:\/\/urn.kb.se\/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:bth-5266."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1037\/10096-003","article-title":"Situating learning in communities of practice","volume":"2","author":"Lave","year":"1991","journal-title":"Perspect. Soc. Shared Cognit."},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"Kolb, D. (1984). Experiential Learning as the Science of Learning and Development, Prentice Hall."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wen, S.-F. (2018, January 6\u20138). Learning Secure Programming in Open Source Software Communities: A Socio-Technical View. Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Information and Education Technology, Osaka, Japan.","DOI":"10.1145\/3178158.3178202"},{"key":"ref_49","unstructured":"Kowalski, S. (1994). IT insecurity: A Multi-Discipline Inquiry. [Ph.D. Thesis, Department of Computer and System Sciences, University of Stockholm and Royal Institute of Technology]."},{"key":"ref_50","unstructured":"Al Sabbagh, B., and Kowalski, S. (2012, January 12\u201314). Developing Social Metrics for Security Modeling the Security Culture of it Workers Individuals (Case Study). Proceedings of the 2012 Mosharaka International Conference on Communications, Computers and Applications (MIC-CCA), Istanbul, Turkey."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"196","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cose.2009.09.002","article-title":"A framework and assessment instrument for information security culture","volume":"29","author":"Eloff","year":"2010","journal-title":"Comput. Secur."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ramachandran, S., Rao, S.V., and Goles, T. (2008, January 7\u201310). Information security cultures of four professions. Proceedings of the 41st Annual Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences, Waikoloa, HI, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/HICSS.2008.201"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Martins, A., and Elofe, J. (2002). Information security culture. Security in the Information Society, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-0-387-35586-3_16"},{"key":"ref_54","unstructured":"Ngo, L., Zhou, W., and Warren, M. (2005, January 30). Understanding Transition towards Information Security Culture Change. Proceedings of the 3rd Australian Information Security Management Conference, Perth, Australia."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Duhon, H.J., and Elias, J. (2007, January 11\u201314). Why It\u2019s Difficult To Learn Lessons: Insights from Decision Theory and Cognitive Science. Proceedings of the SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Anaheim, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.2523\/110211-MS"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110","DOI":"10.1177\/875697280703800111","article-title":"Organizational culture restraining in-house knowledge transfer between project managers\u2014A case study","volume":"38","author":"Eskerod","year":"2007","journal-title":"Project Manag. Inst."},{"key":"ref_57","first-page":"113","article-title":"Diagnosing cultural barriers to knowledge management","volume":"14","author":"David","year":"2000","journal-title":"Acad. Manag. Exec."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1057\/palgrave.kmrp.8499999","article-title":"Knowledge sharing in a multi-cultural setting: A case study","volume":"1","author":"Ford","year":"2003","journal-title":"Knowl. Manag. Res. Pract."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"794","DOI":"10.2307\/3069416","article-title":"Structuring change: Familiarity and formal interventions in problem-solving groups","volume":"44","author":"Okhuysen","year":"2001","journal-title":"Acad. Manag. J."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S4","DOI":"10.1002\/pmj.20056","article-title":"Modeling the knowledge perspective of IT projects","volume":"39","author":"Reich","year":"2008","journal-title":"Project Manag. J."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1554","DOI":"10.1287\/mnsc.46.12.1554.12072","article-title":"Coordinating expertise in software development teams","volume":"46","author":"Faraj","year":"2000","journal-title":"Manag. Sci."},{"key":"ref_62","first-page":"6","article-title":"The effects of user partnering and user non-support on project performance","volume":"7","author":"Jiang","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Assoc. Inf. Syst."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tiwana, A., and McLean, E. (2002, January 14\u201316). Knowledge Integration and Individual Expertise Development in E-Business Project Teams: Prom the Pod to the Peas. Proceedings of the 2002 ACM SIGCPR Conference on Computer Personnel Research, Kristiansand, Norway.","DOI":"10.1145\/512360.512388"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1145\/203330.203345","article-title":"Coordination in software development","volume":"38","author":"Kraut","year":"1995","journal-title":"Commun. ACM"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"420","DOI":"10.1287\/isre.1090.0239","article-title":"Crossing spatial and temporal boundaries in globally distributed projects: A relational model of coordination delay","volume":"20","author":"Cummings","year":"2009","journal-title":"Inf. Syst. Res."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.2753\/MIS0742-1222240104","article-title":"Team knowledge and coordination in geographically distributed software development","volume":"24","author":"Espinosa","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Manag. Inf. Syst."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Herbsleb, J.D. (2007, January 23\u201325). Global Software Engineering: The Future of Socio-Technical Coordination. Proceedings of the 2007 Future of Software Engineering, Minneapolis, MN, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/FOSE.2007.11"},{"key":"ref_68","unstructured":"Anttila, J., Savola, R., Kajava, J., Lindfors, J., and R\u00f6ning, J. (2007, January 11\u201312). Fulfilling the Needs for Information Security Awareness and Learning in Information Society. Proceedings of the 6th Annual Security Conference, Las Vegas, NV, USA."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Child, J. (1984). Organization: A Guide to Problems and Practice, Sage.","DOI":"10.4135\/9781446280348"},{"key":"ref_70","first-page":"12","article-title":"Understanding open source software: A research classification framework","volume":"17","author":"Nelson","year":"2006","journal-title":"Commun. Assoc. Inf. Syst."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1109\/MSP.2004.95","article-title":"Building more secure software with improved development processes","volume":"2","author":"Howard","year":"2004","journal-title":"IEEE Secur. Priv."},{"key":"ref_72","unstructured":"Kayworth, T., and Whitten, D. (2012). Effective information security requires a balance of social and technology factors. MIS Q. Execut., 9, Available online: https:\/\/papers.ssrn.com\/sol3\/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2058035."},{"key":"ref_73","unstructured":"Tilton, J. (2018, June 11). What is an Infostructure. Available online: http:\/\/www.willamette.edu."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"359","DOI":"10.1080\/095373299107401","article-title":"Knowledge management in practice: An exploratory case study","volume":"11","author":"Pan","year":"1999","journal-title":"Technol. Anal. Strateg. Manag."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1007\/s12130-999-1026-0","article-title":"The cathedral and the bazaar","volume":"12","author":"Raymond","year":"1999","journal-title":"Knowl. Technol. Policy"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1145\/2089125.2089127","article-title":"Free\/Libre open-source software development: What we know and what we do not know","volume":"44","author":"Crowston","year":"2012","journal-title":"ACM Comput. Surv."},{"key":"ref_77","unstructured":"Pohl, J. (2005). Intelligent software systems in historical context. Decision Support Systems in Agent-Based Intelligent Environments, IOS Press."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"509","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1097-0266(199708)18:7<509::AID-SMJ882>3.0.CO;2-Z","article-title":"Dynamic capabilities and strategic management","volume":"18","author":"Teece","year":"1997","journal-title":"Strateg. Manag. J."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mckeen, J.D., Zack, M.H., and Singh, S. (2006, January 4\u20137). Knowledge Management and Organizational Performance: An Exploratory Survey. Proceedings of the 39th Annual Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences, (HICSS\u201906), Washington, DC, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/HICSS.2006.242"},{"key":"ref_80","unstructured":"Rosenberg, M.J. (2005). Beyond e-Learning: Approaches and Technologies to Enhance Organizational Knowledge, Learning, and Performance, John Wiley & Sons."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1016\/j.infoandorg.2006.10.001","article-title":"Mechanisms for sharing knowledge in project-based organizations","volume":"17","author":"Boh","year":"2007","journal-title":"Inf. Organ."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1373","DOI":"10.1016\/S0048-7333(01)00157-3","article-title":"Inter-project learning: processes and outcomes of knowledge codification in project-based firms","volume":"30","author":"Prencipe","year":"2001","journal-title":"Res. Policy"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Argote, L. (2012). Organizational Learning: Creating, Retaining and Transferring Knowledge, Springer Science & Business Media.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4614-5251-5"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"756","DOI":"10.2307\/256097","article-title":"Variations in decision makers\u2019 use of information sources: The impact of quality and accessibility of information","volume":"25","year":"1982","journal-title":"Acad. Manag. J."},{"key":"ref_85","unstructured":"Numally, J.C. (1978). Psychometric Theory, McGraw-Hill."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Malcolmson, J. (2009, January 5\u20138). What is Security Culture? Does it Differ in Content from General Organisational Culture?. Proceedings of the 43rd Annual 2009 International Carnahan Conference on Security Technology, Zurich, Switzerland.","DOI":"10.1109\/CCST.2009.5335511"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"427","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apergo.2008.02.010","article-title":"Knowledge sharing and expertise coordination of event response in organizations","volume":"39","author":"Caldwell","year":"2008","journal-title":"Appl. Ergon."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1108\/13673270910971905","article-title":"Research on knowledge transfer in organizations: A morphology","volume":"13","author":"Ganesh","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Knowl. Manag."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Morey, M.D., and Thuraisingham, B. (2000). Knowledge sharing metrics for large organizations. Knowledge Management: Classic and Contemporary Works, MIT Press.","DOI":"10.7551\/mitpress\/4075.001.0001"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1177\/074171369704800103","article-title":"Self-directed learning: Toward a comprehensive model","volume":"48","author":"Garrison","year":"1997","journal-title":"Adult Educ. Q."},{"key":"ref_91","first-page":"27","article-title":"A conceptual model for understanding self-directed learning in online environments","volume":"6","author":"Song","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Interact. Online Learn."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"298","DOI":"10.1108\/13665620610674971","article-title":"Communities of practice as stimulating forces for collective learning","volume":"18","author":"Mittendorff","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Workplace Learn."},{"key":"ref_93","unstructured":"GitHub (2018, June 11). Celebrating Nine Years of GitHub with an Anniversary Sale, Web Page. Available online: https:\/\/github.com\/blog\/2345-celebrating-nine-years-of-github-with-an-anniversary-sale."},{"key":"ref_94","unstructured":"Gousios, G., Vasilescu, B., Serebrenik, A., and Zaidman, A. (June, January 31). Lean GHTorrent: GitHub Data on Demand. Proceedings of the 11th Working Conference on Mining Software Repositories, Hyderabad, India."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.2307\/248922","article-title":"Validating instruments in MIS research","volume":"13","author":"Straub","year":"1989","journal-title":"MIS Q."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"361","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1540-5915.1999.tb01614.x","article-title":"Are individual differences germane to the acceptance of new information technologies?","volume":"30","author":"Agarwal","year":"1999","journal-title":"Decis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_97","unstructured":"Hair, J.F., Black, W.C., Babin, B.J., Anderson, R.E., and Tatham, R.L. (1998). Multivariate Data Analysis, Prentice Hall."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"810","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1540-5915.1989.tb01421.x","article-title":"An instrument for measuring the critical factors of quality management","volume":"20","author":"Saraph","year":"1989","journal-title":"Decis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1108\/02656719510080604","article-title":"A study of measuring the critical factors of quality management","volume":"12","author":"Badri","year":"1995","journal-title":"Int. J. Qual. Reliab. Manag."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1049\/ip-sen:20020202","article-title":"Understanding the requirements for developing open source software systems","volume":"149","author":"Scacchi","year":"2002","journal-title":"IEE Proc. Softw."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"442","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chb.2015.12.037","article-title":"An information security knowledge sharing model in organizations","volume":"57","author":"Safa","year":"2016","journal-title":"Comput. Hum. Behav."}],"container-title":["Computers"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-431X\/7\/4\/49\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T15:23:34Z","timestamp":1760196214000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-431X\/7\/4\/49"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2018,10,1]]},"references-count":101,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,12]]}},"alternative-id":["computers7040049"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/computers7040049","relation":{},"ISSN":["2073-431X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2073-431X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2018,10,1]]}}}