{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,21]],"date-time":"2026-02-21T19:13:47Z","timestamp":1771701227139,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":54,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2018,3,2]],"date-time":"2018-03-02T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1519948800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"US Air Force","award":["FA8075-16-D-0001"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["FA8075-16-D-0001"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Cryptography"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Modern computer microarchitectures build on well-established foundations that have encouraged a pattern of computational homogeneity that many cyberattacks depend on. We suggest that balanced ternary logic can be valuable to Internet of Things (IoT) security, authentication of connected vehicles, as well as hardware and software assurance, and have developed a ternary encryption scheme between a computer and smartcard based on public key exchange through non-secure communication channels to demonstrate the value of balanced ternary systems. The concurrent generation of private keys by the computer and the smartcard uses ternary schemes and cryptographic primitives such as ternary physical unclonable functions. While general purpose ternary computers have not succeeded in general use, heterogeneous computing systems with small ternary computing units dedicated to cryptographic functions have the potential to improve information assurance, and may also be designed to execute binary legacy codes.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/cryptography2010006","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,3,2]],"date-time":"2018-03-02T11:53:40Z","timestamp":1519991620000},"page":"6","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":32,"title":["Can Ternary Computing Improve Information Assurance?"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"2","author":[{"given":"Bertrand","family":"Cambou","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Informatics, Computing and Cyber Systems, Northern Arizona University, SICCS Building, Flagstaff, AZ 86011, USA"}]},{"given":"Paul","family":"Flikkema","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Informatics, Computing and Cyber Systems, Northern Arizona University, SICCS Building, Flagstaff, AZ 86011, USA"}]},{"given":"James","family":"Palmer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Informatics, Computing and Cyber Systems, Northern Arizona University, SICCS Building, Flagstaff, AZ 86011, USA"}]},{"given":"Donald","family":"Telesca","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Air Force Research Laboratories, 26 Electronics Parkwa, Rome, NY 13441, USA"}]},{"given":"Christopher","family":"Philabaum","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Informatics, Computing and Cyber Systems, Northern Arizona University, SICCS Building, Flagstaff, AZ 86011, USA"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,3,2]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"214","DOI":"10.1016\/S0167-4048(03)00310-9","article-title":"Analysis of Vulnerabilities in the Internet Firewall","volume":"22","author":"Kamara","year":"2003","journal-title":"Comput. 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