{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,25]],"date-time":"2026-04-25T14:48:28Z","timestamp":1777128508078,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":68,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,23]],"date-time":"2024-05-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1716422400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"EPSRC","award":["EP\/X040518\/l"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["EP\/X040518\/l"]}]},{"name":"EPSRC","award":["EP\/Y037421\/l"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["EP\/Y037421\/l"]}]},{"name":"DSIT TMF-uplift CHEDDAR","award":["EP\/X040518\/l"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["EP\/X040518\/l"]}]},{"name":"DSIT TMF-uplift CHEDDAR","award":["EP\/Y037421\/l"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["EP\/Y037421\/l"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Cryptography"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Advances in quantum computers may pose a significant threat to existing public-key encryption methods, which are crucial to the current infrastructure of cyber security. Both RSA and ECDSA, the two most widely used security algorithms today, may be (in principle) solved by the Shor algorithm in polynomial time due to its ability to efficiently solve the discrete logarithm problem, potentially making present infrastructures insecure against a quantum attack. The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) reacted with the post-quantum cryptography (PQC) standardization process to develop and optimize a series of post-quantum algorithms (PQAs) based on difficult mathematical problems that are not susceptible to being solved by Shor\u2019s algorithm. Whilst high-powered computers can run these PQAs efficiently, further work is needed to investigate and benchmark the performance of these algorithms on lower-powered (constrained) devices and the ease with which they may be integrated into existing protocols such as TLS. This paper provides quantitative benchmark and handshake performance data for the most recently selected PQAs from NIST, tested on a Raspberry Pi 4 device to simulate today\u2019s IoT (Internet of Things) devices, and provides quantitative comparisons with previous benchmarking data on a range of constrained systems. CRYSTALS-Kyber and CRYSTALS-Dilithium are shown to be the most efficient PQAs in the key encapsulation and signature algorithms, respectively, with Falcon providing the optimal TLS handshake size.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/cryptography8020021","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,23]],"date-time":"2024-05-23T09:04:25Z","timestamp":1716455065000},"page":"21","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":35,"title":["Constrained Device Performance Benchmarking with the Implementation of Post-Quantum Cryptography"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"8","author":[{"given":"Gregory","family":"Fitzgibbon","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Quantum and AI Research, Tession Ltd., Cheadle, Cheshire SK8 1PY, UK"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0032-3999","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Carlo","family":"Ottaviani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Science & York Centre for Quantum Technologies, University of York, York YO10 5GH, UK"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Delfs, H., and Knebl, H. 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