{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,5]],"date-time":"2026-01-05T22:01:24Z","timestamp":1767650484603,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":81,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,28]],"date-time":"2025-05-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1748390400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Cryptography"],"abstract":"<jats:p>As more Internet of Things (IoT) devices are being used, more sensitive data and services are also being hosted by, or accessed via, IoT devices. This leads to a need for a stronger authentication solution for the IoT context, and a stronger authentication solution tends to be based on several authentication factors. Existing multi-factor authentication solutions are mostly used for user-to-system identity verification scenarios, whereas, in the IoT context, there are device-to-device communication scenarios. Therefore, more work is necessary to investigate how to facilitate multi-factor authentication for device-to-device interactions. As part of our ongoing work on the design of the M2I (Multi-factor Multilevel and Interaction-based) framework to facilitate multi-factor authentication in IoT, this paper reports an extension to an authentication framework published previously that supports the multi-factor authentication of devices in device-to-device and device-to-multidevice interactions. In this extended framework, four authentication protocols are added to facilitate multi-factor group authentication between IoT devices. Analysis results show that the protocols satisfy the specified security requirements and are resilient against authentication-related attacks. The communication and computation overheads of the protocols are also analyzed and compared with those of IoT group authentication solutions and Kerberos. The results show that the symmetric-key-based version of the proposed protocols cut the communication and computational costs, respectively, by 70\u223c74% and 89\u223c92% in comparison with those of Kerberos.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/cryptography9020035","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,28]],"date-time":"2025-05-28T08:12:47Z","timestamp":1748419967000},"page":"35","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Optimizing Group Multi-Factor Authentication for Secure and Efficient IoT Device Communications"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"9","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0480-4543","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Salem","family":"AlJanah","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Computer and Information Sciences, Imam Mohammad Ibn Saud Islamic University (IMSIU), Riyadh 11432, Saudi Arabia"},{"name":"Department of Computer Science, The University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PL, UK"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9519-9128","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ning","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Science, The University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PL, UK"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0005-889X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Siok Wah","family":"Tay","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Information Science and Technology (FIST), Multimedia University, Melaka 75450, Malaysia"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"161","article-title":"A Review Paper on Wireless Sensor Network Techniques in Internet of Things (IoT)","volume":"51","author":"Gulati","year":"2022","journal-title":"Mater. 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