{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,27]],"date-time":"2025-11-27T05:27:38Z","timestamp":1764221258334,"version":"3.46.0"},"reference-count":85,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,25]],"date-time":"2025-11-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1764028800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Cryptography"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The metaverse represents a transformative integration of virtual and physical worlds, offering unprecedented opportunities for social interaction, commerce, education, healthcare, and entertainment. Establishing trust in these expansive and decentralized environments remains a critical challenge. Blockchain technology, with its decentralized, secure, and immutable nature, is emerging as an essential pillar of trust and digital asset ownership within the metaverse. This paper provides an extensive review of blockchain-enabled trust and reputation frameworks specifically tailored to metaverse ecosystems. We present an in-depth analysis of existing blockchain solutions across diverse metaverse domains, including gaming, virtual real estate, healthcare, and education. Our core contributions include a comprehensive taxonomy that classifies current trust and reputation schemes by their underlying mechanisms, threat models addressed, and their architectural strategies. We provide a comparative benchmark analysis evaluating key performance metrics such as security robustness, scalability, user privacy, and cross-platform interoperability, revealing critical trade-offs inherent in current designs. Our analysis finds that score-based designs trade scalability for nuanced reputation representation, while SSI- and SBT-based approaches improve Sybil-resistance but introduce significant privacy governance challenges. Finally, we outline unresolved research challenges, including cross-platform reputation portability, privacy-preserving computation, real-time trust management, and standardized governance structures.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/cryptography9040074","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,25]],"date-time":"2025-11-25T16:31:54Z","timestamp":1764088314000},"page":"74","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["A Review on Blockchain-Based Trust and Reputation Schemes in Metaverse Environments"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"9","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8922-549X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Firdous","family":"Kausar","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Science and Data Science, School of Applied Computational Sciences, Meharry Medical College, Nashville, TN 37208, USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5312-8575","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hafiz M.","family":"Asif","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, College of Engineering, Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat 123, Oman"}]},{"given":"Sajid","family":"Hussain","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Science and Data Science, School of Applied Computational Sciences, Meharry Medical College, Nashville, TN 37208, USA"}]},{"given":"Shahid","family":"Mumtaz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Digital Innovation Research Group, Department of Computer Science, Nottingham Trent University (NTU), Nottingham NG1 4FQ, UK"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aygun, R.C., Vural, T., and Zhang, L. (2023, January 26\u201328). Blockchain\u2019s Role in Metaverse Trust and Transactions. Proceedings of the 2023 IEEE International Conference on Metaverse Computing, Networking and Applications (MetaCom), Kyoto, Japan.","DOI":"10.1109\/MetaCom57706.2023.00148"},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Decentraland Foundation (2025, June 17). Decentraland Official Website. Available online: https:\/\/decentraland.org\/."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"The Sandbox Team (2025, June 17). The Sandbox Official Website. Available online: https:\/\/www.sandbox.game\/en\/."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Metaverse Standards Forum (2025). Unified Reputation Management for Metaverse Entities, Metaverse Standards Forum. Technical Report Version 1.0."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"GamesPad Editorial Team (2025, June 17). The Role of Reputation Systems in Building Trust in the NFT Market. Available online: https:\/\/gamespad.io\/the-role-of-reputation-systems-in-building-trust-in-the-nft-market\/."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"146915","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2024.3469193","article-title":"A Survey on Decentralized Metaverse using Blockchain and Web 3.0 technologies, Applications, and more","volume":"12","author":"Ghosh","year":"2024","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/3614426","article-title":"Secure and Trustworthy Artificial Intelligence-extended Reality (AI-XR) for Metaverses","volume":"56","author":"Qayyum","year":"2024","journal-title":"ACM Comput. Surv."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"401","DOI":"10.1016\/j.future.2023.02.008","article-title":"Blockchain for the metaverse: A Review","volume":"143","author":"Gadekallu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Future Gener. Comput. Syst."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sathya, A.R. (2023). Blockchain: The Foundation of Trust in Metaverse, Springer International Publishing.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-031-22835-3_5"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118318","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2023.3326258","article-title":"Toward Trustworthy Metaverse: Advancements and Challenges","volume":"11","author":"Jim","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Coinbase Learn Team (2025, June 17). What Are Soulbound Tokens (SBT)?. Available online: https:\/\/www.coinbase.com\/learn\/crypto-glossary\/what-are-soulbound-tokens-sbt."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26258","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2023.3257029","article-title":"Blockchain meets metaverse and digital asset management: A comprehensive survey","volume":"11","author":"Truong","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pattanayak, S., Ramkumar, M., and Gupta, S. (2025). Blockchain Empowered Metaverse: Enhancing User Engagement through Trust, Collaboration, Authenticity, and Governance. Inf. Syst. Front.","DOI":"10.1007\/s10796-025-10622-1"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Perey, C. (2024, January 21). Interoperability is a Fundamental Requirement for the Open Metaverse. Proceedings of the 2024 IEEE International Symposium on Emerging Metaverse (ISEMV), Bellevue, WA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/ISEMV63338.2024.00019"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Al-kfairy, M., Alomari, A., Al-Bashayreh, M., Alfandi, O., Altaee, M., and Tubishat, M. (2023, January 21\u201324). A Review of the Factors Influencing Users\u2019 Perception of Metaverse Security and Trust. Proceedings of the 2023 Tenth International Conference on Social Networks Analysis, Management and Security (SNAMS), Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates.","DOI":"10.1109\/SNAMS60348.2023.10375478"},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Sky Mavis (2024, July 03). Axie Infinity. Available online: https:\/\/axieinfinity.com\/."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Sky Mavis (2024, July 03). Ronin Blockchain. Available online: https:\/\/roninchain.com\/."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Dapper Labs (2025, July 03). Flow Blockchain. Available online: https:\/\/flow.com\/."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Immutable (2025, July 03). What Is Immutable X?. Available online: https:\/\/docs.immutable.com\/x\/what-is-immutablex\/."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mourtzis, D., Angelopoulos, J., and Panopoulos, N. (2023). Blockchain integration in the era of industrial metaverse. Appl. Sci., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/app13031353"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6758","DOI":"10.1080\/10447318.2023.2290380","article-title":"Analyzing the metaverse: Computer games, blockchain, and 21st-century challenge","volume":"40","author":"Gil","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Hum.-Interact."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nguyen, C.T., Hoang, D.T., Nguyen, D.N., and Dutkiewicz, E. (2022, January 19\u201322). Metachain: A novel blockchain-based framework for metaverse applications. Proceedings of the 2022 IEEE 95th Vehicular Technology Conference:(VTC2022-Spring), Helsinki, Finland.","DOI":"10.1109\/VTC2022-Spring54318.2022.9860983"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Duan, H., Li, J., Fan, S., Lin, Z., Wu, X., and Cai, W. (2021, January 20\u201324). Metaverse for Social Good: A University Campus Prototype. Proceedings of the 29th ACM International Conference on Multimedia (MM \u201921), New York, NY, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/3474085.3479238"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, Y., Zhu, M., Chen, X., Liu, R., Ge, J., Song, Y., and Yu, G. (2024). The application of metaverse in healthcare. Front. Public Health, 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2024.1420367"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ali, S., Armand, T.P.T., Athar, A., Hussain, A., Ali, M., Yaseen, M., Joo, M.I., and Kim, H.C. (2023). Metaverse in healthcare integrated with explainable AI and blockchain: Enabling immersiveness, ensuring trust, and providing patient data security. Sensors, 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/s23020565"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"373","DOI":"10.36548\/jitdw.2024.4.005","article-title":"Navigating the Future: Blockchain-based Metaverse in Education","volume":"6","author":"Karunarathne","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Inf. Technol. Digit. World"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136370","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2023.3337806","article-title":"Blockchain-Based Trust Management for Virtual Entities in the Metaverse: A Model for Avatar and Virtual Organization Interactions","volume":"11","author":"Awan","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Awan, K.A., Ud Din, I., Almogren, A., and Kim, B.S. (2023). Enhancing Performance and Security in the Metaverse: Latency Reduction Using Trust and Reputation Management. Electronics, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/electronics12153362"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109404","DOI":"10.1016\/j.comnet.2022.109404","article-title":"A Blockchain-based Trust and Reputation Model with Dynamic Evaluation Mechanism for IoT","volume":"218","author":"Tu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Comput. Networks"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1109\/MNET.2024.3382346","article-title":"A Reputation-Aided Lightweight Consensus Service Framework for Multi-Chain Metaverse","volume":"38","author":"Xia","year":"2024","journal-title":"IEEE Netw."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4024","DOI":"10.1109\/TNSM.2024.3419151","article-title":"Meta-Governance: Blockchain-Driven Metaverse Platform for Mitigating Misbehavior Using Smart Contract and AI","volume":"21","author":"Rahaman","year":"2024","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Netw. Serv. Manag."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Dimitriou, T. (2025, November 10). Decentralized reputation, Cryptology ePrint Archive, Paper 2020\/761. Available online: https:\/\/eprint.iacr.org\/2020\/761."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22697","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2024.3383096","article-title":"A Blockchain-Based Reliable Federated Meta-Learning for Metaverse: A Dual Game Framework","volume":"11","author":"Baccour","year":"2024","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Things J."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2067","DOI":"10.1109\/TSC.2024.3382958","article-title":"Blockchain-Based Efficient and Trustworthy AIGC Services in Metaverse","volume":"17","author":"Lin","year":"2024","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Serv. Comput."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Kharvi, P.L. (2025). A Design Science Framework for Measuring Trust and Security in the Metaverse Space: A Holistic Approach to Digital Trustworthiness. [Ph.D. Thesis, Marymount University, College of Business, Innovation, Leadership, and Technology]."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41815","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2024.3376509","article-title":"Trust-Free Blockchain Framework for AI-Generated Content Trading and Management in Metaverse","volume":"12","author":"Truong","year":"2024","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92337","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2024.3423400","article-title":"Securing the Metaverse: A Blockchain-Enabled Zero-Trust Architecture for Virtual Environments","volume":"12","author":"Almogren","year":"2024","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ghirmai, S., Mebrahtom, D., Aloqaily, M., Guizani, M., and Debbah, M. (2023). Self-Sovereign Identity for Trust and Interoperability in the Metaverse. arXiv.","DOI":"10.1109\/SmartWorld-UIC-ATC-ScalCom-DigitalTwin-PriComp-Metaverse56740.2022.00345"},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"Ohlhaver, P., Weyl, E.G., and Buterin, V. (2022). Decentralized Society: Finding Web3\u2019s Soul, SSRN Electronic Journal. Technical Report 4105763."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"Wagmi Tips (2025, June 17). Soulbound Tokens: What They Are and Why They Matter. Available online: https:\/\/wagmi.tips\/guides\/soulbound-tokens\/."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"EY Insights Team (2025, June 17). If the Metaverse Is Intrinsically Anonymous, How Do You Encode Trust?. Available online: https:\/\/www.ey.com\/en_ch\/insights\/technology\/if-the-metaverse-is-intrinsically-anonymous-how-do-you-encode-trust."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112994","DOI":"10.1016\/j.asoc.2025.112994","article-title":"A Fuzzy AHP-based trust management mechanism for self-sovereign identity in the metaverse","volume":"174","author":"Song","year":"2025","journal-title":"Appl. Soft Comput."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Patwe, S., and Mane, S.B. (2024). Blockchain-enabled secure and interoperable authentication scheme for metaverse environments. Future Internet, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/fi16050166"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mebrahtom, D., Hadish, S., Sbhatu, A., Aloqaily, M., and Guizani, M. (2023, January 18\u201320). Trust But Verify\u2014Blockchain-Empowered Decentralized Authentication Schema on the Metaverse: A Self-Sovereign Identity Approach. Proceedings of the 2023 International Conference on Intelligent Metaverse Technologies & Applications (iMETA), Tartu, Estonia.","DOI":"10.1109\/iMETA59369.2023.10294349"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/3696454","article-title":"Establishing Trust and Security in Decentralized Metaverse: A Web 3.0 Approach","volume":"20","author":"Gebre","year":"2024","journal-title":"ACM Trans. Multimed. Comput. Commun. Appl."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"304","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dsm.2024.04.003","article-title":"Trust framework for self-sovereign identity in metaverse healthcare applications","volume":"7","author":"Ling","year":"2024","journal-title":"Data Sci. Manag."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100088","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hcc.2022.100088","article-title":"A trustless architecture of blockchain-enabled metaverse","volume":"3","author":"Xu","year":"2023","journal-title":"High-Confid. Comput."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10255","DOI":"10.1109\/TVT.2025.3543650","article-title":"VMGuard: Reputation-Based Incentive Mechanism for Poisoning Attack Detection in Vehicular Metaverse","volume":"74","author":"Lotfi","year":"2025","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"168","DOI":"10.26599\/IJCS.2023.9100025","article-title":"DareChain: A Blockchain-Based Trusted Collaborative Network Infrastructure for Metaverse","volume":"7","author":"Li","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Crowd Sci."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"919","DOI":"10.1109\/JSAC.2023.3345382","article-title":"Reputation management for consensus mechanism in vehicular edge metaverse","volume":"42","author":"Liu","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Areas Commun."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/3735672","article-title":"QSTMF: Quantum-Secured Trust Management Framework for VANETs in Web 3.0 and Metaverse","volume":"20","author":"Awan","year":"2025","journal-title":"ACM Trans. Auton. Adapt. Syst."},{"key":"ref_52","first-page":"v1","article-title":"Blockchain-Based Decentralised Privacy-Preserving Machine Learning Authentication and Verification with Immersive Devices in the Urban Metaverse Ecosystem","volume":"317","author":"Kuru","year":"2024","journal-title":"Preprints"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cao, Y., Cao, J., Cui, Z., Bai, D., Zhang, M., and Wen, L. (2024, January 12\u201314). PolyTwin: Edge Blockchain-empowered Trustworthy Digital Twin Network for Metaverse. Proceedings of the 2024 IEEE International Conference on Metaverse Computing, Networking, and Applications (MetaCom), Hong Kong, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/MetaCom62920.2024.00026"},{"key":"ref_54","unstructured":"Islam, S. (2023). Trust in Digital Asset Transactions in a Web 3 Based Metaverse. [Master\u2019s Thesis, OULU Business School, University of OULU]."},{"key":"ref_55","unstructured":"Civic Technologies, Inc (2025, June 17). Civic Whitepaper: A Secure Identity Ecosystem. Available online: https:\/\/www.civic.com\/."},{"key":"ref_56","unstructured":"Chainlink Labs (2025, June 17). Chainlink 2.0: Next Steps in the Evolution of Decentralized Oracle Networks. Available online: https:\/\/research.chain.link\/whitepaper-v2.pdf."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"210","DOI":"10.1007\/s12083-025-02020-w","article-title":"Blockchain-based decentralized identifier in metaverse environment for secure and privacy-preserving authentication with improved key management and cryptosystem","volume":"18","author":"Vijitha","year":"2025","journal-title":"Peer-Netw. Appl."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cao, Y., Cao, J., Bai, D., Wen, L., Liu, Y., and Li, R. (2024). MAP the Blockchain World: A Trustless and Scalable Blockchain Interoperability Protocol for Cross-chain Applications. arXiv.","DOI":"10.1145\/3696410.3714867"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2302","DOI":"10.1002\/nem.2302","article-title":"A Fast Cross-Chain Protocol Based on Trusted Notary Group for Metaverse","volume":"35","author":"Ding","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int. J. Netw. Manag."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.1109\/COMST.2022.3202047","article-title":"A Survey on Metaverse: Fundamentals, Security, and Privacy","volume":"25","author":"Wang","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Surv. Tutor."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"234","DOI":"10.26599\/BDMA.2022.9020047","article-title":"Security and Privacy in Metaverse: A Comprehensive Survey","volume":"6","author":"Huang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Big Data Min. Anal."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chow, Y.W., Susilo, W., Li, Y., Li, N., and Nguyen, C. (2023). Visualization and Cybersecurity in the Metaverse: A Survey. J. Imaging, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/jimaging9010011"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Polychronaki, M., Xevgenis, M.G., Kogias, D.G., and Leligou, H.C. (2024). Decentralized Identity Management for Metaverse-Enhanced Education: A Literature Review. Electronics, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/electronics13193887"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yousafzai, A., Sheeraz, M.M., Pogrebna, G., Crowcroft, J., and Yaqoob, I. (2025). Blockchain for the Metaverse: Recent Advances, Taxonomy and Future Directions. J. Netw. Comput. Appl., early access.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jnca.2025.104355"},{"key":"ref_65","unstructured":"Sevim, H.O. (2022, January 20). A Survey on Trustless Cross-Chain Interoperability Protocols. Proceedings of the Distributed Ledger Technology Workshop (DLT), Rome, Italy."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4295","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aej.2021.09.051","article-title":"6G technology and taxonomy of attacks on blockchain technology","volume":"61","author":"Kausar","year":"2022","journal-title":"Alex. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_67","first-page":"100312","article-title":"A taxonomy study on securing Blockchain-based Industrial applications: An overview, application perspectives, requirements, attacks, countermeasures, and open issues","volume":"26","author":"Hameed","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Ind. Inf. Integr."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2188","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2018.2882794","article-title":"Blockchain technologies for the internet of things: Research issues and challenges","volume":"6","author":"Ferrag","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Things J."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2442009","DOI":"10.1142\/S242478632442009X","article-title":"Digital identities in the metaverse: Privacy, security, and user authentication in virtual financial systems","volume":"11","author":"Garg","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Financ. Eng."},{"key":"ref_70","unstructured":"(2025, June 23). OpenSea: NFT Marketplace. Available online: https:\/\/opensea.io\/."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"723","DOI":"10.1109\/TDSC.2024.3417531","article-title":"Distributed and parallel blockchain: Towards a multi-chain system with enhanced security","volume":"22","author":"Liu","year":"2024","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Dependable Secur. Comput."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9176","DOI":"10.1109\/TKDE.2024.3436514","article-title":"RollStore: Hybrid Onchain-Offchain Data Indexing for Blockchain Applications","volume":"36","author":"Lin","year":"2024","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Knowl. Data Eng."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Al-Turjman, F. (2021). Convergence of Blockchain in IoT Applications for Heterogeneous Networks. Real-Time Intelligence for Heterogeneous Networks: Applications, Challenges, and Scenarios in IoT HetNets, Springer International Publishing.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-75614-7"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2243121","DOI":"10.1080\/23299460.2023.2243121","article-title":"The \u2018metaverse\u2019and the challenge of responsible standards development","volume":"10","author":"Hemphill","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Responsible Innov."},{"key":"ref_75","unstructured":"Trust Over IP Foundation (2025, June 30). Trust Over IP Foundation. Available online: https:\/\/trustoverip.org\/."},{"key":"ref_76","unstructured":"Roblox Corporation (2025, June 30). Roblox. Available online: https:\/\/www.roblox.com\/."},{"key":"ref_77","unstructured":"Epic Games (2025, June 30). Fortnite. Available online: https:\/\/www.epicgames.com\/fortnite."},{"key":"ref_78","unstructured":"Zarick, R., Pellegrino, B., and Banister, C. (2021). Layerzero: Trustless omnichain interoperability protocol. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_79","first-page":"4662","article-title":"Polkadot: Vision for a heterogeneous multi-chain framework","volume":"21","author":"Wood","year":"2016","journal-title":"White Pap."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Abbas, H., Caprolu, M., and Di Pietro, R. (2022, January 22\u201325). Analysis of polkadot: Architecture, internals, and contradictions. Proceedings of the 2022 IEEE International Conference on Blockchain (Blockchain), Espoo, Finland.","DOI":"10.1109\/Blockchain55522.2022.00019"},{"key":"ref_81","unstructured":"Cosmos Network (2025, November 10). IBC-Go Documentation: The Golang Implementation of the Inter-Blockchain Communication Protocol. Available online: https:\/\/docs.cosmos.network\/ibc\/v10.1.x\/intro."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fiege, U., Fiat, A., and Shamir, A. (1987, January 1). Zero knowledge proofs of identity. Proceedings of the Nineteenth Annual ACM Symposium on Theory of Computing, New York, NY, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/28395.28419"},{"key":"ref_83","unstructured":"zCloak Network (2025, November 10). Proposing \u201czk-SBT\u201d \u2014 A Zero-Knowledge Soulbound Token. Available online: https:\/\/mirror.xyz\/zcloak-network.eth\/BSqm-pLo3CbQgnBK_eMfrV9MUe3HL_MP65F3mkIyycc."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cabot-Nadal, M.\u00c0., Playford, B., Payeras-Capell\u00e0, M.M., Gerske, S., Mut-Puigserver, M., and Peric\u00e0s-Gornals, R. (2023, January 16\u201318). Private Identity-Related Attribute Verification Protocol Using SoulBound Tokens and Zero-Knowledge Proofs. Proceedings of the 2023 7th Cyber Security in Networking Conference (CSNet), Montreal, QC, Canada.","DOI":"10.1109\/CSNet59123.2023.10339754"},{"key":"ref_85","unstructured":"Polyhedra Network (2025, November 10). Introducing Polyhedra Network: ZkBridge and zkDID for Web3. Available online: https:\/\/blog.polyhedra.network\/introducing-polyhedra-network\/."}],"container-title":["Cryptography"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2410-387X\/9\/4\/74\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,27]],"date-time":"2025-11-27T05:25:05Z","timestamp":1764221105000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2410-387X\/9\/4\/74"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,25]]},"references-count":85,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12]]}},"alternative-id":["cryptography9040074"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/cryptography9040074","relation":{},"ISSN":["2410-387X"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2410-387X"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,25]]}}}