{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,31]],"date-time":"2026-01-31T10:53:08Z","timestamp":1769856788186,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":54,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,10,18]],"date-time":"2019-10-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1571356800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Data"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This study examines a pricing approach that is applicable in the field of online ticket sales for game tickets. The mathematical principle of dynamic programing is combined with empirical data analysis to determine demand functions for university football game tickets. Based on the calculated demand functions, the application of DP strategies is found to generate more revenues than a fixed price strategy. The other important result is the capacity distribution of tickets according to the football game intensity. Prior studies have shown that it is sometimes more profitable or football clubs to allocate a share of tickets to a retailer and earn a commission based on the sales, rather than selling the entire capacity of tickets by itself. This paper finds that in a high intensity game, where the demand is generally high, it is optimal for the club to sell all tickets by itself. Whereas, for less popular games, where there is considerable fluctuation in demand, the capacity allocation problem for maximized revenues from ticket sales, becomes a harder optimization challenge for the club. According to DP optimization, when the demand for tickets is relatively low, it is optimal for the club to retain 20\u201340% of the tickets and the rest of the capacity should be sold to online retailers. In the real world, this pricing technique has been used by football clubs and thus the secondary market online retailers like Ticketmaster and Vivid Seats have become popular in the last decade.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/data4040141","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,10,18]],"date-time":"2019-10-18T11:24:15Z","timestamp":1571397855000},"page":"141","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Capacity Allocation of Game Tickets Using Dynamic Pricing"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"4","author":[{"given":"Aniruddha","family":"Dutta","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Haas School of Business, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94704, USA"},{"name":"Smith School of Business, Queen\u2019s University, Kingston, ON K7L 3N6, Canada"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,10,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"60","article-title":"Big Data: The Management Revolution","volume":"90","author":"McAfee","year":"2012","journal-title":"Harv. Bus. Rev."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Lovelace, R. (2014). The Data Revolution: Big Data, Open Data, Data Infrastructures and Their Consequences, by Rob Kitchen, Sage Publications."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Alfredo, C., Song, Y., and Karen, C.D. Analytics over large-scale multidimensional data: The big data revolution. Proceedings of the ACM 14th international workshop on Data Warehousing and OLAP (DOLAP \u201811), ACM."},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"184","article-title":"Dynamic ticket pricing in sports: An agenda for research and practice","volume":"21","author":"Drayer","year":"2012","journal-title":"Sports Mark. Q."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1108\/eb002618","article-title":"The economics of professional team sports: A survey of theory and evidence","volume":"13","author":"Cairns","year":"1986","journal-title":"J. Econ. Stud."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"478","DOI":"10.1093\/oxrep\/19.4.478","article-title":"Demand for sports","volume":"19","author":"Borland","year":"2003","journal-title":"Oxf. Rev. Econ. Policy"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Downward, P., and Dawson, A. (2000). The Economics of Professional Team Sports, Routledge.","DOI":"10.4324\/9780203460245"},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"161","article-title":"Ticket prices, concessions and attendance at professional sporting events","volume":"2","author":"Coates","year":"2007","journal-title":"Int. J. Sports Financ."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.1177\/1527002505275093","article-title":"Can we find it at the concessions? Understanding price elasticity in professional sports","volume":"8","author":"Krautmann","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Sports Econ."},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"922","article-title":"Inelastic sports ticket pricing, marginal win revenue, and firm pricing strategy: A behavioral pricing model","volume":"42","author":"Chang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Manag. Financ."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"999","DOI":"10.1287\/mnsc.40.8.999","article-title":"Optimal dynamic pricing of inventories with stochastic demand over finite horizons","volume":"40","author":"Gallego","year":"1994","journal-title":"Manag. Sci."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1287\/opre.45.1.24","article-title":"A multiproduct dynamic pricing problem and its applications to network yield management","volume":"45","author":"Gallego","year":"1997","journal-title":"Oper. Res."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"522","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejor.2005.01.041","article-title":"Dynamic pricing with real-time demand learning","volume":"174","author":"Lin","year":"2006","journal-title":"Eur. J. Oper. Res."},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"139","article-title":"A Dynamic Programming Solution to Cost-Time Tradeoff for CPM","volume":"22","author":"Robinson","year":"1975","journal-title":"Manag. Sci."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"676","DOI":"10.1109\/TAC.2004.826719","article-title":"The application of Dynamic Programming to Optimal Inventory Control","volume":"49","author":"Berovic","year":"2004","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Autom. Control"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.2307\/1905261","article-title":"Dynamic Programming Under Uncertainty with a Quadratic Criterion Function","volume":"24","author":"Simon","year":"1956","journal-title":"Econommetrica"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1287\/trsc.27.3.252","article-title":"A Model for Dynamic Airline Seat Inventory Control with Multiple Seat Bookings","volume":"27","author":"Lee","year":"1993","journal-title":"Transp. Sci."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"378","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhm.2009.09.001","article-title":"Pricing determinants in the hotel industry: Quantile regression analysis","volume":"29","author":"Hung","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. Hosp. Manag."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"160","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhm.2011.06.003","article-title":"Dynamic pricing strategies: Evidence from European hotels","volume":"31","author":"Abrate","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Hosp. Manag."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1287\/trsc.21.2.63","article-title":"Airline yield management: An overview of seat inventory control","volume":"21","author":"Belobaba","year":"1987","journal-title":"Transp. Sci."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.1287\/opre.37.2.183","article-title":"Application of a probabilistic decision model to airline seat inventory control","volume":"37","author":"Belobaba","year":"1989","journal-title":"Oper. Res."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"303","DOI":"10.1057\/palgrave.rpm.5170079","article-title":"Hotel revenue management and its impact on customer fairness perceptions","volume":"2","author":"Choi","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Revenue Pricing Manag."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1177\/0010880404270032","article-title":"Impact of information on customer fairness perceptions of hotel revenue management","volume":"46","author":"Choi","year":"2005","journal-title":"Cornell Hotel Restaur. Adm. Q."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.1007\/s10660-005-6161-4","article-title":"Dynamic pricing and the directto-customer model in the automotive industry","volume":"5","author":"Biller","year":"2005","journal-title":"Electron. Commer. Res."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Simchi-Levi, D. (2004). Coordination of Pricing and Inventory Decisions: A Survey and Classification. Handbook of Quantitative Supply Chain Analysis, Kluwer Academic. ISBN-10: 1402079524."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1080\/10864415.2001.11044211","article-title":"Dynamic pricing on the internet: Importance and implications for consumer behavior","volume":"5","author":"Kannan","year":"2001","journal-title":"Int. J. Electron. Commer."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"265","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1011546021787","article-title":"Dynamic pricing on the internet: Theory and simulations","volume":"1","author":"Leloup","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Electron. Commer. Res."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1287\/mnsc.1080.0936","article-title":"Dynamic pricing in the presence of strategic consumers and oligopolistic competition","volume":"55","author":"Levin","year":"2009","journal-title":"Manag. Sci."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.1287\/msom.1060.0105","article-title":"Dynamic pricing strategies for multiproduct revenue management problems","volume":"8","author":"Maglaras","year":"2006","journal-title":"Manuf. Serv. Oper. Manag."},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"2138","article-title":"Optimal ticket pricing in professional sports: A social identity approach","volume":"34","author":"Peiss","year":"2014","journal-title":"Econ. Bull."},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"33","article-title":"Attendance, revenues, profits and the on-field performance of the Greek football clubs","volume":"2","author":"Dimitropoulos","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Sci. Eng. Res."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"637","DOI":"10.1080\/00036848200000038","article-title":"The demand for league football","volume":"14","author":"Bird","year":"1982","journal-title":"Appl. Econ."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1155","DOI":"10.1080\/00036849200000009","article-title":"The demand for standing and seated viewing accommodation in the English Football League","volume":"24","author":"Dobson","year":"1992","journal-title":"Appl. Econ."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1177\/1527002510394294","article-title":"Take me out to the Yakyushiai: Determinants of attendance at Nippon professional baseball games","volume":"13","author":"Leeds","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Sports Econ."},{"key":"ref_35","first-page":"309","article-title":"Japanese professional soccer attendance and the effects of regions, competitive balance and rival franchises","volume":"7","author":"Watanabe","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Sport Financ."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108","DOI":"10.1177\/1527002503004002002","article-title":"Market Size, Pay and Performance. A general model application to Major League Baseball","volume":"4","author":"Burger","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Sports Econ."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"499","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-629X.2006.00179.x","article-title":"Impact of on-field football success on the off-field financial performance of AFL football clubs","volume":"46","author":"Pinnuck","year":"2006","journal-title":"Account. Financ."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"347","DOI":"10.1177\/1527002505275094","article-title":"On the road with the National Basketball Association\u2019s superstar externality","volume":"7","author":"Berri","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Sports Econ."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"586","DOI":"10.1086\/209839","article-title":"Superstars in the National Basketball Association: Economic value and policy","volume":"15","author":"Hausman","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Labor Econ."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1002\/mde.2670","article-title":"The determinants of attendance at neutral site college football games","volume":"36","author":"Mirabile","year":"2015","journal-title":"Manag. Decis. Econ."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1177\/1527002504265957","article-title":"How long a honeymoon? The Effect of new stadiums on attendance in Major League Baseball","volume":"6","author":"Clapp","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Sports Econ."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"278","DOI":"10.1123\/jsm.19.3.278","article-title":"When is the honeymoon over? Major League Baseball attendance 1970\u20132000","volume":"19","author":"Leadley","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Sport Manag."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1177\/001088048903000309","article-title":"The basics of yield management","volume":"30","author":"Kimes","year":"1989","journal-title":"Cornell Hotel Restaur. Adm. Q."},{"key":"ref_44","first-page":"5","article-title":"Value determination in the secondary ticket market: A quantitative analysis of the NFL playoffs","volume":"18","author":"Drayer","year":"2009","journal-title":"Sports Mark. Q."},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"Moe, W.W., Fader, P.S., and Kahn, B. (2011, January 4\u20135). Buying tickets: Capturing the dynamic factors that drive consumer purchase decision for sporting events. Proceedings of the MIT Sloan Sports Analytics Conference, Boston, MA, USA."},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"Cui, Y., Duenas, I., and Shahin, O. (2012, January 2\u20133). Sports event revenue management with consumer resale. Proceedings of the MIT Sloan Sports Analytics Conference, Boston, MA, USA."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2240","DOI":"10.3844\/jcssp.2014.2240.2252","article-title":"Dynamic pricing with updated demand for the sports and entertainment ticket industry","volume":"10","author":"Phumchusri","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Comput. Sci."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.1080\/16184742.2015.1129548","article-title":"Dynamic ticket pricing and the impact of time-an analysis of price paths of the English soccer club Derby County","volume":"16","author":"Kemper","year":"2016","journal-title":"Eur. Sport Manag. Q."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1287\/msom.2018.0760","article-title":"Designing and evaluating dynamic pricing policies for major league baseball tickets","volume":"21","author":"Xu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Manuf. Serv. Oper. Manag."},{"key":"ref_50","first-page":"152","article-title":"Determinants of dynamic pricing premiums in Major League Baseball","volume":"22","author":"Paul","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sports Mark. Q."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"448","DOI":"10.1016\/j.smr.2012.03.005","article-title":"An examination of underlying consumer demand and sports pricing using secondary market data","volume":"15","author":"Drayer","year":"2012","journal-title":"Sports Manag. Rev."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1080\/000368496328777","article-title":"The demand for English league football, a club-level analysis","volume":"28","author":"Simmons","year":"1996","journal-title":"Appl. Econ."},{"key":"ref_53","first-page":"18","article-title":"The determinants of football match attendance revisited: Empirical evidence from the Spanish football league","volume":"3","author":"Garcia","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Sport Econ."},{"key":"ref_54","unstructured":"Hayes, D.K., and Miller, A.A. (2011). Revenue Management for the Hospitality, John Wiley and Sons."}],"container-title":["Data"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2306-5729\/4\/4\/141\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T13:27:37Z","timestamp":1760189257000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2306-5729\/4\/4\/141"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,10,18]]},"references-count":54,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,12]]}},"alternative-id":["data4040141"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/data4040141","relation":{},"ISSN":["2306-5729"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2306-5729","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,10,18]]}}}