{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,5]],"date-time":"2025-11-05T05:45:14Z","timestamp":1762321514949,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":77,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2014,7,16]],"date-time":"2014-07-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1405468800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Entropy"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The present paper is a review of several papers from the Proceedings of the Joint European Thermodynamics Conference, held in Brescia, Italy, 1\u20135 July 2013, namely papers introduced by their authors at Panel I of the conference. Panel I was devoted to applications of the Second Law of Thermodynamics to social issues\u2014economics, ecology, sustainability, and energy policy. The concept called Available Energy which goes back to mid-nineteenth century work of Kelvin, Rankine, Maxwell and Gibbs, is relevant to all of the papers. Various names have been applied to the concept when interactions between the system of interest and an environment are involved. Today, the name exergy is generally accepted. The scope of the papers being reviewed is wide and they complement one another well.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/e16073903","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2014,7,16]],"date-time":"2014-07-16T11:47:18Z","timestamp":1405511238000},"page":"3903-3938","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":12,"title":["Panel I: Connecting 2nd Law Analysis with Economics, Ecology and Energy Policy"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Richard","family":"Gaggioli","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical Engineering, Marquette University, Milwaukee, WI 53201-1881, USA"}]},{"given":"Mauro","family":"Reini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Engineering and Architecture, University of Trieste\u2014\"Polo di Pordenone\", Pordenone 33170, Italy"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2014,7,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"JETC 2013, 12th Joint European Thermodynamics Conference. Available online: http:\/\/jetc2013.ing.unibs.it\/proceedings.htm."},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"5","article-title":"Reflections on the History and Future of Exergy","volume":"99","author":"Gaggioli","year":"1999","journal-title":"Proc. ECOS"},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Gibbs, J.W. (1873). A Method of Geometrical Representation of the Thermodynamic Properties of Substances by Means of Surfaces, Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gibbs, J.W. (1875). On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances, Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences.","DOI":"10.5479\/sil.421748.39088007099781"},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"104","article-title":"Available Energy\u2014Part I: Gibbs Revisited","volume":"124","author":"Gaggioli","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Energy Resour. Technol"},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Gibbs covers the basics of available energy on four (small) pages. The presentation is amplified in [5]."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"Some exergy (X) is \u201cused up\u201d\u2014annihilated\u2014in all real processes; so for any real process the change in exergy content of a subsystem over any time interval is represented by \u0394X = \u0394X\u03c4 \u2212 \u0394X\u03b4 where \u0394X\u03c4 is the net amount of exergy transferred into and \u0394X\u03b4 is the amount of exergy destroyed within the subsystem. Such an equation can be, and commonly is, called an \u2018exergy balance\u2019 (over the objections of some who would reserve the word \u201cbalance\u201d for conserved additive properties). The derivation of expressions for exergy content X, transports X\u03c4 and destruction X\u03b4 can be found in most textbooks on \u201cEngineering Thermodynamics\u201d. Incidentally, when a system consists of two or more distinct subsystems, whether one is a \u201cmedium\u201d or not it is in fact feasible to define exergy for each subsystem, an additive property, with balance equations [76]."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"A primary resource could be a crude \u201cmineral\u201d taken from the earth or elsewhere, or a fuel or a chemical feedstock that has been refined from the crude, or solar radiation, \u2026, or any \u201csource\u201d that is not in equilibrium with the medium and hence has exergy."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Some processes can be modeled well enough by assuming that there is no exergy destruction within the system being modeled, accounting for any exergy consumption by interactions with the system\u2019s surroundings. (A couple of examples are (a) classical mechanics models, when it is assumed that frictional effects at the boundary have negligible effect upon the thermostatic state within the body; (b) lumped-parameter modeling of free thermal convection to or from an object, when gradients of temperature within the body are assumed to be negligible."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Reini, M., Lazzaretto, A., and Macor, A. (1995, January 5\u20137). Average Structural and Marginal Costs as Result of a Unified Formulation of the Thermoeconomic Problem. Roma, Italy."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Valero, A., Lozano, M.A., and Munoz, M. (1986). A General Theory of Exergy Savings, Part I: on the Exergetic Cost, Part II: on the Thermoeconomic Cost, Part III: Energy Savings and Thermoeconomics, Computer-Aided Engineering of Energy Systems, ASME."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Serra, L., Lozano, M.A., Valero, A., and Torres, C. (1995, January 11\u201314). On average and marginal costs in thermoeconomics. Istanbul, Turkey."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1016\/0360-5442(85)90020-9","article-title":"Exergoeconomic analysis and evaluation of energy conversion plants","volume":"10","author":"Tsatsaronis","year":"1985","journal-title":"Energy"},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Reini, M., and Buoro, D. (2010, January 14\u201317). Mixed Integer Linearized Exergoeconomic (MILE) method for energy system synthesis and optimization. Lausanne, Switzerland."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1016\/S0921-8009(96)00046-8","article-title":"Embodied energy analysis and EMERGY analysis: A comparative view","volume":"19","author":"Brown","year":"1996","journal-title":"Ecol. Econ."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Reistad, G.M., and Gaggioli, R.A. (1980). Thermodynamics: Second Law Analysis, American Chemical Society. ACS Symposium Series, Volume 122; Chapter 9."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gaggioli, R.A. (1983). Second Law Analysis for Process and Energy Engineering, American Chemical Society. ACS Symposium Series, Volume 235.","DOI":"10.1021\/bk-1983-0235.ch001"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1115\/1.3231402","article-title":"A critical review of second law costing methods: Parts I and II","volume":"111","author":"Gaggioli","year":"1989","journal-title":"J. Energy Res. Tech"},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"195","article-title":"A Steam Chart for Second Law Analysis","volume":"54","author":"Keenan","year":"1932","journal-title":"Mech. Eng"},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"The purpose of the low-pressure steam is for heating of chemical processes to expedite the rates of reaction. Different processes call for different temperature steam, which depends upon the steam pressure. Steam is delivered to processes at two pressures, HP and LP; further control of the temperature is achieved by throttling steam at the point of use."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Consider the following case, which is just one example of when yet another alternative would be called for. Suppose that the cost of purchased power from the local public utility were 2.10 cents\/kWh. Then it would be inappropriate (and impractical) to charge in-plant users of power 2.15 cents\/kWh. An appropriate auxiliary equation would simply be to assign cPower = 2.10 cents\/kWhr. The resultant cost of LP steam would be 2.2 cents\/kWh, which is significantly less than the 4.5 cents\/kWhr (2 cents\/kg) cost when obtained by throttling the HP steam. (With a 10,000 kW turbine using 360,000 kg\/h of steam, the earnings from the turbine investment is $8000\/h. Calculations were made using data circa 1980 [16].)."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Evans, R.B., and Tribus, M. (1962). Thermoeconomics, University of California. UCLA Report No. 52\u201363."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Spiegler, K. (1966). Principles of Desalination, Academic Press."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1115\/1.3445296","article-title":"Thermoeconomics and the Design of Heat-power Systems","volume":"92","author":"Evans","year":"1970","journal-title":"J. Eng. Power"},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Valero, A., Torres, C., and Serra, L. (1992, January 15\u201318). A general theory of thermoeconomics: Part I: Structural analysis. Zaragoza, Spain."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Valero, A., Lozano, M.A., and Serra, L. (1993). Structural Theory of Thermoeconomics, ASME."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"In a few words, the shadow cost associated with a resource (Fuel or Product) tells how much more total fuel consumption you would get by increasing the amount of that resource by one unit, for external consumption. It can be proved (reminiscent of [24]) that the shadow costs correspond to the Lagrange Multipliers of a LP problem, having the total fuel consumption as objective function and the Fuel\u2014Product relations (of all components, junctions and branches) as linear constraints [10,12]. The point of the generalization of average costs is not stressed inside the papers [25,26], probably because the idea of the authors was to present the Structural Theory as based on the physical model of the system, instead of on some mathematic abstractions."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Reini, M., and Valero, A. (2002, January 24\u201328). Towards a Unified Formulation of Exergy Cost Theory and Emergy Algebra for Ecological and Technological Energy System Evaluation. Porto Venere, Italy."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"144","DOI":"10.1016\/j.energy.2007.06.007","article-title":"On the cost formation process of the residues","volume":"33","author":"Torres","year":"2008","journal-title":"Energy"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1257","DOI":"10.1016\/j.energy.2005.03.011","article-title":"SPECO: A systematic and general methodology for calculating efficiencies and costs in thermal systems","volume":"31","author":"Lazzaretto","year":"2006","journal-title":"Energy"},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"The numerator of both of these two efficiencies is the same. In the case of exergetic efficiency the denominator excess over the numerator is an amount equal to the exergy destruction by the real turbine, which is the product of the reference (ambient) temperature times the entropy production by the turbine: T0[sout \u2013 sin]. For isentropic efficiency the excess is again proportional to the entropy production, in this case multiplied by a mean temperature Tm between the actual outlet T and the outlet T for the hypothetical perfect turbine: Tm[sout \u2013 sin]. For reasonably efficient turbines the two efficiencies are relatively close in value, because the denominators exceed the numerators by only five to 20%, and the values of Tm are, roughly, only 30% above T0. (As shown by the plot, lowering turbine exhaust pressure reduces Tm, toward T0.)."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"The foregoing remarks are also relevant to Lazzaretto\u2019s Point b), where he refers to \u201creal thermodynamic behavior of the component itself\u201d. Component \u201creal thermodynamic behavior\u201d is represented by (modeled by) balance equations, property and kinetic relations and imposed boundary\/initial conditions, not by an arbitrarily defined \u201cefficiency\u201d (as a \u201cperformance parameter\u201d). Every \u201cefficiency\u201d (or \u201cfigure of merit\u201d or Eco-indicator) is arbitrarily defined, as a convenience. At times they are used in a mathematical model, but they are not necessary. They are a convenience, usually useful but not fundamental [71]."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"The reader should know that there has been a long-standing disagreement between the writers and the promoters of SPECO, regarding the selection of auxiliary equations. So far the dispute has been amicable and hopefully it will remain so. The promoters know that the writers have limitless respect for their work (which has received several well-deserved awards). At this point, the reader can be the judge, or withhold judgment until the promoters rebut. Meanwhile, interested readers can refer to several \u201ccase studies\u201d (of a co-generating turbine invoking auxiary equations different from SPECO and DP) in the References of this paper."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"For each of the n items, one of the equations related thereto is an energy balance (implicitly if not explicitly). Notably, an exergy balance is not necessary for the mathematical modeling."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Generally the actual loads on a system vary with time, in a response to demand for the product(s). Commonly \u201cdesign loads\u201d are the maximum outputs that are expected or sought from the system. Taking load variations into account while seeking an optimum design is certainly important. For simplicity, here cases where load variations are very small are considered, which is sufficient for the discussions that are immediately relevant to the papers of Panel I. Means for accounting for a \u201cschedule\u201d of load variations (say for a spectrum showing \u201cpercent of full load\u2019 versus \u2018number of hours per year at that load\u201d) can be conceived. Likewise, variations of feed inputs and interactions with the environment are being neglected here."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Moreover, in so doing, exergy analysis uncovers needs (and hence opportunities) for the development of system-structure modifications and\/or new technologies. Energy analysis is misleading and counter-productive. It is suggested here that, when energy is used appropriately (for modeling), when representing that role the phrase \u201cenergy analysis\u201d should be avoided."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"Bejan, A., Tsatsaronis, G., and Moran, M. (1996). Thermal Design and Optimization, Wiley."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1016\/j.energy.2008.07.018","article-title":"Exergoenvironmental Analysis for Evaluation of the Environmental Impact of Energy Conversion Systems","volume":"34","author":"Meyer","year":"2009","journal-title":"Energy"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"384","DOI":"10.1016\/j.energy.2008.12.007","article-title":"Advanced exergetic analysis: Approaches for splitting the exergy destruction into endogenous and exogenous parts","volume":"34","author":"Kelly","year":"2009","journal-title":"Energy"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1259","DOI":"10.1016\/S0196-8904(02)00012-2","article-title":"On avoidable and unavoidable exergy destructions and investment costs in thermal systems","volume":"43","author":"Tsatsaronis","year":"2003","journal-title":"Energy Convers. Manag"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bakshi, B.R., Gutowski, T.G., and Sekulic, D.P. (2011). Thermodynamics and the Destruction of Resources, Cambridge University Press. Chapter 15.","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511976049"},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"Morosuk, T. (2013, January 15\u201321). Strengths and Limitations of Advanced Exergy Analysis. San Diego, CA, USA. Paper No. IMECE2013\u201364320."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1889","DOI":"10.1016\/j.energy.2004.03.008","article-title":"On the thermoeconomic approach to the diagnosis of energy system malfunctions: Part 2. Malfunction definitions and assessment","volume":"29","author":"Valero","year":"2004","journal-title":"Energy"},{"key":"ref_44","first-page":"183","article-title":"A Thermoeconomic Approach for the Analysis of District Heating Systems","volume":"4","author":"Verda","year":"2003","journal-title":"Int. J. 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Power"},{"key":"ref_49","unstructured":"Odum, T.H. (2000). Emergy Accounting, Centre for Environmental Policy Environmental Engineering Science, University of Florida."},{"key":"ref_50","unstructured":"Ulgiati, S., and Brown, M.T. (2001). Thermodynamics and Ecological Modelling, Lewis Publisher."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1158","DOI":"10.1016\/j.energy.2006.08.009","article-title":"Emergy as a function of exergy","volume":"32","author":"Bastianoni","year":"2007","journal-title":"Energy"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1016\/S0304-3800(02)00288-0","article-title":"Evaluating waste treatment, recycle and reuse in industrial system: An application of the eMergy approach","volume":"160","author":"Yang","year":"2003","journal-title":"Ecol. 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(1979). Application of the Second Law to the Analysis and Design of Energy Systems, University of Wisconsin. Ph.D. Dissertation."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wepfer, W.J., and Gaggioli, R.A. (1980). Thermodynamics: Second Law Analysis, ACS. ACS Symposium Series, Volume 122.","DOI":"10.1021\/bk-1980-0122"},{"key":"ref_72","unstructured":"(a) The terminology associated with the general concept of \u2018available energy\u2019 and definitions related thereto have been very erratic, and is somewhat unsettled yet. One factor causing confusion is that different investigators, not in communication with each other, specified a name for a particular concept, used at their \u201cschool\u201d. The name exergy has become well \u2018standardized\u2019 for the concept called \u201csubsystem available energy\u201d in [71] and which had commonly been called \u201cavailable energy\u201d or \u2018availability\u2019 in the USA. (b) There is a significant typographical error in Equation (14) of [71]. The second line should read, = EA + pfVA \u2013 TfSA \u2212 \u03a3\u03bcifNiA. (c) Some of the developments in [19] have been streamlined since; e.g., in [76] and [73]."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.5541\/ijot.423","article-title":"The Dead State","volume":"15","author":"Gaggioli","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Thermodyn"},{"key":"ref_74","unstructured":"An exception would be an individual who developed the expertise in order to become a consultant, specializing in its use. Likely, finding clients\u2014marketing\u2014would be difficult."},{"key":"ref_75","unstructured":"An interesting possibility would be to replace the use of energy balances in modeling with exergy balances. This would not be as simple as one might hope. It would require the explicit incorporation of entropy balances in the model; however they are there now, implicitly, when efficiencies (or figures of merit) are included to represent the behavior of devices (or, in continuum models, when transport and kinetic coefficients are employed to represent material behavior). Explicit inclusion of entropy balances can simplify modeling [77]."},{"key":"ref_76","first-page":"1","article-title":"Available Energy Exergy","volume":"1","author":"Gaggioli","year":"1998","journal-title":"Int. J. Thermodyn"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1115\/1.1339983","article-title":"Entropy Production as a Predictive Performance Measure for Turbomachinery","volume":"123","author":"Paulus","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Eng. Gas Turbines Power"}],"container-title":["Entropy"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1099-4300\/16\/7\/3903\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T21:13:41Z","timestamp":1760217221000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1099-4300\/16\/7\/3903"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2014,7,16]]},"references-count":77,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2014,7]]}},"alternative-id":["e16073903"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/e16073903","relation":{},"ISSN":["1099-4300"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1099-4300"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2014,7,16]]}}}