{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,28]],"date-time":"2026-02-28T04:22:10Z","timestamp":1772252530135,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":69,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2017,5,20]],"date-time":"2017-05-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1495238400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Entropy"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Using insights from cybernetics and an information-based understanding of biological systems, a precise, scientifically inspired, definition of free-will is offered and the essential requirements for an agent to possess it in principle are set out. These are: (a) there must be a self to self-determine; (b) there must be a non-zero probability of more than one option being enacted; (c) there must be an internal means of choosing among options (which is not merely random, since randomness is not a choice). For (a) to be fulfilled, the agent of self-determination must be organisationally closed (a \u201cKantian whole\u201d). For (c) to be fulfilled: (d) options must be generated from an internal model of the self which can calculate future states contingent on possible responses; (e) choosing among these options requires their evaluation using an internally generated goal defined on an objective function representing the overall \u201cmaster function\u201d of the agent and (f) for \u201cdeep free-will\u201d, at least two nested levels of choice and goal (d\u2013e) must be enacted by the agent. The agent must also be able to enact its choice in physical reality. The only systems known to meet all these criteria are living organisms, not just humans, but a wide range of organisms. The main impediment to free-will in present-day artificial robots, is their lack of being a Kantian whole. Consciousness does not seem to be a requirement and the minimum complexity for a free-will system may be quite low and include relatively simple life-forms that are at least able to learn.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/e19050237","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2017,5,23]],"date-time":"2017-05-23T01:47:33Z","timestamp":1495504053000},"page":"237","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":19,"title":["Can a Robot Have Free Will?"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"19","author":[{"given":"Keith","family":"Farnsworth","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Biological Sciences, Queen\u2019s University Belfast, Belfast BT97BL, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,5,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1050","DOI":"10.3390\/e12051050","article-title":"Functional Information: Towards Synthesis of Biosemiotics and Cybernetics","volume":"12","author":"Sharov","year":"2010","journal-title":"Entropy"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"683","DOI":"10.1387\/ijdb.092936rh","article-title":"The emergence of patterning in life\u2019s origin and evolution","volume":"53","author":"Hazen","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int. J. Dev. Biol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1007\/s10441-013-9179-3","article-title":"Living is Information Processing: From Molecules to Global Systems","volume":"61","author":"Farnsworth","year":"2013","journal-title":"Acta Biotheor."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Von Weizs\u00e4cker, C.F. (1974). Die Einheit der Natur, Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1016\/0303-2647(96)88368-7","article-title":"Information as a basic property of the universe","volume":"38","author":"Stonier","year":"1996","journal-title":"Biosystems"},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Devlin, K.J. (1992). Logic and Information, Cambridge University Press."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Floridi, L. (2003). Information. The Blackwell Guide to the Philosophy of Computing and Information, Blackwell Publishing Ltd.","DOI":"10.1111\/b.9780631229193.2003.00002.x"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"689","DOI":"10.1038\/423689a","article-title":"Functional information: Molecular messages","volume":"423","author":"Szostak","year":"2003","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8574","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0701744104","article-title":"Functional information and the emergence of biocomplexity","volume":"104","author":"Hazen","year":"2007","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tcs.2015.11.002","article-title":"Molecular computers for molecular robots as hybrid systems","volume":"632","author":"Hagiya","year":"2016","journal-title":"Theor. Comp. Sci."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pfeifer, R., and Bongard, J. (2007). How the Body Shapes the Way We Think: A New View of Intelligence, MIT Press.","DOI":"10.7551\/mitpress\/3585.001.0001"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.2307\/2024717","article-title":"Freedom of the will and the concept of a person","volume":"68","author":"Frankfurt","year":"1971","journal-title":"J. Philos."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Kane, R. (2005). A Contemporary Introduction to Free Will, Oxford University Press."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"McKenna, M., and Pereboom, D. (2016). Free Will: A Contemporary Introduction, Routledge.","DOI":"10.4324\/9781315621548"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Coeckelbergh, M. (2004). The Metaphysics of Autonomy, Palgrave Macmillan.","DOI":"10.1057\/9780230501812"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"599","DOI":"10.1525\/nclr.2005.8.2.599","article-title":"Getting the Fly out of the Bottle: The False Problem of Free Will and Determinism","volume":"8","author":"Westen","year":"2005","journal-title":"Buffalo Crim. Law Rev."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Van Inwagen, P. (1983). An Essay on Free Will, Oxford University Press."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"156","DOI":"10.1111\/nous.12019","article-title":"Free will, determinism, and the possibility of doing otherwise","volume":"48","author":"List","year":"2014","journal-title":"No\u00fbs"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.5840\/harvardreview2015224","article-title":"Some Thoughts on An Essay on Free Will","volume":"22","year":"2015","journal-title":"Harvard Rev. Phil."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Strawson, G. (1986). Freedom and Belief, Oxford University Press."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-5193(86)80047-9","article-title":"Autocatalytic sets of proteins","volume":"119","author":"Kauffman","year":"1986","journal-title":"J. Theor. Biol."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Froese, T., Virgo, N., and Izquierdo, E. (2007, January 10\u201314). Autonomy: A review and a reappraisal. Proceedings of the European Conference on Artificial Life, Lisbon, Portugal."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Varela, F. (1979). Principles of Biological Autonomy, Elsevier."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Zeleny, M. (1981). What is autopoiesis?. Autopoiesis: A Theory of Living Organization, Elsevier North Holland."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Rosen, R. (1991). Life Itself, Columbia University Press."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vernon, D., Lowe, R., Thill, S., and Ziemke, T. (2015). Embodied cognition and circular causality: On the role of constitutive autonomy in the reciprocal coupling of perception and action. Front. Psychol., 6.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2015.01660"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bich, L. (2016). Systems and organizations: Theoretical tools, conceptual distinctions and epistemological implications. Towards a Post-Bertalanffy Systemics, Springer International Publishing.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-24391-7_21"},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Varzi, A. (2017, May 19). Mereology. Available online: http:\/\/philsci-archive.pitt.edu\/12040\/."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Effingham, N. (2013). An Introduction to Ontology, Polity Press."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.2307\/2214142","article-title":"When Are Objects Parts?","volume":"1","year":"1987","journal-title":"Phil. Perspect."},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"335","article-title":"Relational Closure: A mathematical concept for distinction-making and complexity analysis","volume":"90","author":"Heylighen","year":"1990","journal-title":"Cybern. Syst."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"501","DOI":"10.1007\/s10539-005-9003-9","article-title":"On emergence, agency, and organization","volume":"21","author":"Kauffman","year":"2006","journal-title":"Biol. Philos."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bird, G. (2006). Kant\u2019s biological teleology and its philosophical significance. A Companion to Kant, Blackwell.","DOI":"10.1111\/b.9781405111973.2006.00003.x"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"451","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtbi.2003.11.020","article-title":"Detecting autocatalytic, self-sustaining sets in chemical reaction systems","volume":"227","author":"Hordijk","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Theor. Biol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1733","DOI":"10.3390\/e12071733","article-title":"Autocatalytic Sets and the Origin of Life","volume":"12","author":"Hordijk","year":"2010","journal-title":"Entropy"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4112","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.97.8.4112","article-title":"Compositional genomes: Prebiotic information transfer in mutually catalytic noncovalent assemblies","volume":"97","author":"Lancet","year":"2000","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1007\/s00114-002-0389-9","article-title":"Autopoiesis: A review and a reappraisal","volume":"90","author":"Luisi","year":"2003","journal-title":"Naturwissenschaften"},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"Davies, J.A. (2014). Life Unfolding: How the Human Body Creates Itself, Oxford University Press."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"Von Neumann, J., and Burks, A. (1966). Theory of Self-Reproducing automata, Illinois University Press."},{"key":"ref_40","first-page":"187","article-title":"Autopoiesis: The organization of living systems, its characterization and a model","volume":"5","author":"Varela","year":"1974","journal-title":"Curr. Mod. Biol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1159","DOI":"10.1098\/rsif.2008.0018","article-title":"Top-down causation by information control: From a philosophical problem to a scientific research programme","volume":"5","author":"Auletta","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. R. Soc. Interface"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1098\/rsfs.2011.0045","article-title":"Downward causation by information control in micro-organisms","volume":"2","author":"Jaeger","year":"2012","journal-title":"Interface Focus"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"741","DOI":"10.2307\/2024640","article-title":"Functional Analysis","volume":"72","author":"Cummins","year":"1975","journal-title":"J. Philos."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Farnsworth, K.D., Albantakis, L., and Caruso, T. (2017). Unifying concepts of biological function from molecules to ecosystems. Oikos.","DOI":"10.1101\/105320"},{"key":"ref_45","first-page":"129","article-title":"The emergence of modularity in biological systems","volume":"8","author":"Lorenz","year":"2011","journal-title":"Phys. Life Rev."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1098\/rsfs.2011.0052","article-title":"Laws, causation and dynamics at different levels","volume":"2","author":"Butterfield","year":"2012","journal-title":"Interface Focus"},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"List, C. (2017, May 19). Levels: Descriptive, explanatory, and ontological. Available online: http:\/\/philsci-archive.pitt.edu\/12040\/."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126","DOI":"10.1098\/rsfs.2011.0062","article-title":"Top-down causation and emergence: Some comments on mechanisms","volume":"2","author":"Ellis","year":"2012","journal-title":"Interface Focus"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1080\/00359190809519211","article-title":"On the nature of causation in complex systems","volume":"63","author":"Ellis","year":"2008","journal-title":"Trans. R. Soc. S. Afr."},{"key":"ref_50","unstructured":"Walker, S.I., Davies, P.C.W., and Ellis, G.F.R. (2017). Living through Downward Causation. From Matter to Life: Information and Causality, Cambridge University Press."},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"Gilbert, S. (2013). Developmental Biology, Sinauer Associates."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Seeley, T. (2010). Honeybee Democracy, Princeton University Press.","DOI":"10.1515\/9781400835959"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1016\/j.plrev.2008.08.002","article-title":"Life, gravity and the second law of thermodynamics","volume":"5","author":"Lineweaver","year":"2008","journal-title":"Phys. Life Rev."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4463","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.97.9.4463","article-title":"Evolution of biological complexity","volume":"97","author":"Adami","year":"2000","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"niw012","DOI":"10.1093\/nc\/niw012","article-title":"Can the macro beat the micro? Integrated information across spatiotemporal scales","volume":"1","author":"Hoel","year":"2016","journal-title":"Neurosci. Conscious."},{"key":"ref_56","unstructured":"Marshall, W., Albantakis, L., and Tononi, G. (1608). Black-boxing and cause-effect power. arXivs."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mayr, E. (1974). Teleological and Teleonomic: A New Analysis. Methodological and Historical Essays in the Natural and Social Sciences, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-94-010-2128-9_6"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"424","DOI":"10.3390\/info5030424","article-title":"Top-down causation and the rise of information in the emergence of life","volume":"5","author":"Walker","year":"2014","journal-title":"Information"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"327","DOI":"10.1086\/522809","article-title":"Rethinking the Theoretical Foundation of Sociobiology","volume":"82","author":"Wilson","year":"2007","journal-title":"Q. Rev. Biol."},{"key":"ref_60","unstructured":"Wilson, E.O. (1975). Sociobiology: The New Synthesis, Harvard University Press."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1574-6976.2008.00137.x","article-title":"Bacteria as computers making computers","volume":"33","author":"Danchin","year":"2009","journal-title":"FEMS Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20120869","DOI":"10.1098\/rsif.2012.0869","article-title":"The algorithmic origins of life","volume":"10","author":"Walker","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. R. Soc. Interface"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kauffman, S.A. (2000). Investigations, Oxford University Press.","DOI":"10.1093\/oso\/9780195121049.001.0001"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"484","DOI":"10.1038\/nchembio.611","article-title":"Principles of a switch","volume":"7","author":"Ptashne","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nat. Chem. Biol."},{"key":"ref_65","first-page":"129","article-title":"Gedanken-experiments on sequential machines","volume":"34","author":"Moore","year":"1956","journal-title":"Auto. Stud."},{"key":"ref_66","unstructured":"Minsky, M.L. (1967). Computation\u2013Finite and Infinite Machines, Prentice Hall."},{"key":"ref_67","first-page":"220228","article-title":"Adaptive learning via selectionism and Bayesianism, Part 1: Connection between the two","volume":"22","author":"Zhang","year":"2009","journal-title":"Neural Netw."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lineweaver, C.H., Davies, P.C.W., and Ruse, M. (2013). The inferential evolution of biological complexity: Forgetting nature by learning nurture. Complexity and the Arrow of Time, Cambridge University Press.","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9781139225700"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"224","DOI":"10.1159\/000113276","article-title":"The Limbic System of Tetrapods: A Comparative Analysis of Cortical and Amygdalar Populations","volume":"46","author":"Bruce","year":"1995","journal-title":"Brain Behav. Evol."}],"container-title":["Entropy"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1099-4300\/19\/5\/237\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T18:36:31Z","timestamp":1760207791000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1099-4300\/19\/5\/237"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2017,5,20]]},"references-count":69,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,5]]}},"alternative-id":["e19050237"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/e19050237","relation":{"has-preprint":[{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.20944\/preprints201702.0105.v1","asserted-by":"object"}]},"ISSN":["1099-4300"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1099-4300","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2017,5,20]]}}}