{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,18]],"date-time":"2026-01-18T11:05:38Z","timestamp":1768734338810,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":34,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2017,6,16]],"date-time":"2017-06-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1497571200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Entropy"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Pulse rate variability (PRV), an alternative measure of heart rate variability (HRV), is altered during obstructive sleep apnea. Correntropy spectral density (CSD) is a novel spectral analysis that includes nonlinear information. We recruited 160 children and recorded SpO2 and photoplethysmography (PPG), alongside standard polysomnography. PPG signals were divided into 1-min epochs and apnea\/hypoapnea (A\/H) epochs labeled. CSD was applied to the pulse-to-pulse interval time series (PPIs) and five features extracted: the total spectral power (TP: 0.01\u20130.6 Hz), the power in the very low frequency band (VLF: 0.01\u20130.04 Hz), the normalized power in the low and high frequency bands (LFn: 0.04\u20130.15 Hz, HFn: 0.15\u20130.6 Hz), and the LF\/HF ratio. Nonlinearity was assessed with the surrogate data technique. Multivariate logistic regression models were developed for CSD and power spectral density (PSD) analysis to detect epochs with A\/H events. The CSD-based features and model identified epochs with and without A\/H events more accurately relative to PSD-based analysis (area under the curve (AUC) 0.72 vs. 0.67) due to the nonlinearity of the data. In conclusion, CSD-based PRV analysis provided enhanced performance in detecting A\/H epochs, however, a combination with overnight SpO2 analysis is suggested for optimal results.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/e19060282","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2017,6,16]],"date-time":"2017-06-16T10:06:31Z","timestamp":1497607591000},"page":"282","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Correntropy-Based Pulse Rate Variability Analysis in Children with Sleep Disordered Breathing"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"19","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9503-6908","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ainara","family":"Garde","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Biomedical Signals and Systems Group, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Mathematics &amp; Computer Science, University of Twente, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Parastoo","family":"Dehkordi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical &amp; Computer Engineering, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8427-2035","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"John","family":"Ansermino","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anesthesiology, Pharmacology &amp; Therapeutics, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z3, Canada"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Guy","family":"Dumont","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical &amp; Computer Engineering, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada"},{"name":"Department of Anesthesiology, Pharmacology &amp; Therapeutics, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z3, Canada"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,6,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1183\/13993003.00385-2015","article-title":"Obstructive sleep disordered breathing in 2\u201318 year-old children: Diagnosis and management","volume":"47","author":"Kaditis","year":"2016","journal-title":"Eur. Respir. J."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"576","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2012-1671","article-title":"Diagnosis and management of childhood obstructive sleep apnea syndrome","volume":"130","author":"Marcus","year":"2012","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"3","article-title":"Oxygen Saturation in Children with and without Obstructive Sleep Apnea Using the Phone-Oximeter","volume":"4","author":"Garde","year":"2013","journal-title":"Conf. Proc. IEEE Eng. Med. Biol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.1016\/j.resp.2013.05.017","article-title":"Sleep-related changes in autonomic control in obstructive sleep apnea: A model-based perspective","volume":"188","author":"Khoo","year":"2013","journal-title":"Respir. Physiol. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1005","DOI":"10.1109\/TBME.2008.2009340","article-title":"Discrimination of sleep-apnea-related decreases in the amplitude fluctuations of PPG signal in children by HRV analysis","volume":"56","author":"Gil","year":"2009","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.3390\/e17010123","article-title":"Assessment of time and frequency domain entropies to detect sleep apnoea in heart rate variability recordings from men and women","volume":"17","author":"Hornero","year":"2015","journal-title":"Entropy"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"294","DOI":"10.3389\/fphys.2013.00294","article-title":"Heart rate variability in normal and pathological sleep","volume":"4","author":"Tobaldini","year":"2013","journal-title":"Front. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"6563","article-title":"Pulse rate variability compared with heart rate variability in children with and without sleep disordered breathing","volume":"2013","author":"Dehkordi","year":"2013","journal-title":"Conf. Proc. IEEE Eng. Med. Biol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"240","DOI":"10.1109\/JBHI.2013.2267096","article-title":"Pulse rate variability analysis for discrimination of sleep-apnea-related decreases in the amplitude fluctuations of pulse photoplethysmographic signal in children","volume":"18","author":"Gil","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE J. Biomed. Health Inf."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1088\/0967-3334\/37\/2\/187","article-title":"Evaluation of cardiac modulation in children in response to apnea\/hypopnea using the Phone Oximeter\u2122","volume":"37","author":"Dehkordi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Physiol. Meas."},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"87","article-title":"Is the Normal Heartbeat Chaotic or Homeostatic?","volume":"6","author":"Goldberger","year":"1991","journal-title":"News Physiol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"028508","DOI":"10.1063\/1.3133128","article-title":"Is the normal heart rate \u201cchaotic\u201d due to respiration?","volume":"19","author":"Wessel","year":"2009","journal-title":"Chaos"},{"key":"ref_13","first-page":"1","article-title":"Heart rate variability and non-linear dynamics in risk stratification","volume":"2","year":"2011","journal-title":"Front. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1900","DOI":"10.1109\/TBME.2006.889772","article-title":"Use of Sample Entropy Approach to Study Heart Rate Variability in Obstructive Sleep Apnea Syndrome","volume":"54","author":"Sahakian","year":"2007","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.3390\/e17010231","article-title":"Multiscale Entropy Analysis of Heart Rate Variability for Assessing the Severity of Sleep Disordered Breathing","volume":"17","author":"Pan","year":"2015","journal-title":"Entropy"},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"2187","article-title":"Generalized Correlation Function: Definition, Properties, and Application to Blind Equalization","volume":"54","author":"Member","year":"2006","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sigpro.2008.07.005","article-title":"Correntropy as a Novel Measure for Nonlinearity Tests","volume":"89","author":"Gunduz","year":"2009","journal-title":"Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Iber, C., Ancoli-Israel, S., Chesson, A., and Quan, S.F. (2007). The AASM Manual for the Scoring of Sleep and Associated Events: Rules, Terminology and Technical Specifications, American Academy of Sleep Medicine."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1617","DOI":"10.1088\/0967-3334\/33\/10\/1617","article-title":"Photoplethysmogram signal quality estimation using repeated Gaussian filters and cross-correlation","volume":"33","author":"Karlen","year":"2012","journal-title":"Physiol. Meas."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1143","DOI":"10.1109\/TBME.2003.817636","article-title":"Comparison of Detrended Fluctuation Analysis and Spectral Analysis for Heart Rate Variability in Sleep and Sleep Apnea","volume":"50","author":"Penzel","year":"2003","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"4687","article-title":"Correntropy-based analysis of respiratory patterns in patients with chronic heart failure","volume":"2009","author":"Garde","year":"2009","journal-title":"Conf. Proc. IEEE Eng. Med. Biol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Akaike, H. (1973). Information Theory and an Extension of the Maximum Likelihood Principle, Springer."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"774","DOI":"10.1016\/S0895-4356(01)00341-9","article-title":"Internal validation of predictive models: Efficiency of some procedures for logistic regression analysis","volume":"54","author":"Steyerberg","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Clin. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Ewout, W.S. (2017, May 31). Clinical Prediction Models. Available online: http:\/\/www.clinicalpredictionmodels.org\/."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"94","DOI":"10.1109\/TBME.2006.883789","article-title":"Complexity and Nonlinearity in Short-Term Heart Period Variability: Comparison of Methods Based on Local Nonlinear Prediction","volume":"54","author":"Porta","year":"2007","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"635","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevLett.77.635","article-title":"Improved Surrogate Data for Nonlinearity Tests","volume":"77","author":"Schreiber","year":"1996","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. Lett."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"346","DOI":"10.1016\/S0167-2789(00)00043-9","article-title":"Surrogate time series","volume":"142","author":"Schreiber","year":"2000","journal-title":"Physics D"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1964","DOI":"10.1109\/TBME.2010.2044176","article-title":"Correntropy-based Spectral Characterization of Respiratory Patterns in Patients with Chronic Heart Failure","volume":"57","author":"Garde","year":"2010","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"2399","article-title":"Correntropy-based nonlinearity test applied to patients with chronic heart failure","volume":"2010","author":"Garde","year":"2010","journal-title":"Proc. IEEE Conf. Eng. Med. Biol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1271","DOI":"10.1088\/0967-3334\/31\/9\/015","article-title":"Photoplethysmography pulse rate variability as a surrogate measurement of heart rate variability during non-stationary conditions","volume":"31","author":"Gil","year":"2010","journal-title":"Physiol. Meas."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1509","DOI":"10.1093\/sleep\/30.11.1509","article-title":"Sleep Apnea in Heart Failure Increases Heart Rate Variability and Sympathetic Dominance","volume":"11","author":"Szollosi","year":"2007","journal-title":"Sleep"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1079","DOI":"10.1109\/TBME.2009.2037734","article-title":"PTT Variability for Discrimination of Sleep Apnea Related Decreases in the Amplitude Fluctuations of PPG Signal in Children","volume":"57","author":"Gil","year":"2010","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Garde, A., Dehkordi, P., Karlen, W., Wensley, D., Ansermino, J.M., and Dumont, G.A. (2014). Development of a screening tool for sleep disordered breathing in children using the phone oximeter\u2122. PLoS ONE, 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0112959"},{"key":"ref_34","first-page":"3195","article-title":"Identifying individual sleep apnea\/hypoapnea epochs using smartphone-based pulse oximetry","volume":"2016","author":"Garde","year":"2016","journal-title":"Conf. Proc. IEEE Eng. Med. Biol. Soc."}],"container-title":["Entropy"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1099-4300\/19\/6\/282\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T18:39:21Z","timestamp":1760207961000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1099-4300\/19\/6\/282"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2017,6,16]]},"references-count":34,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,6]]}},"alternative-id":["e19060282"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/e19060282","relation":{},"ISSN":["1099-4300"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1099-4300","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2017,6,16]]}}}