{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,29]],"date-time":"2025-11-29T16:21:35Z","timestamp":1764433295788,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":26,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,12,30]],"date-time":"2019-12-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1577664000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100006769","name":"Russian Science Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["19-12-00312"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["19-12-00312"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100006769","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100008687","name":"Rosatom","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["1\/17519-D"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1\/17519-D"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100008687","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Entropy"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In studying the hot plasma behavior in tokamak devices, the classical approach for collisional processes is traditionally used. This approach leaves unexplained a number of phenomena observed in experiments related to plasma energy confinement. Further, it is well known that tokamak plasma is always turbulent and self-organized. In the present paper, we show that the nonequilibrium thermodynamics approach allows us to explain many observed dependences and paradoxes; for example, puffing of impurities results in confinement improvement if zones of plasma cooling by impurities and additional plasma heating are not overlapped. The analysis of the experimental results shows the important role of radiation losses at the plasma edge in the processes determining its total energy confinement. It is shown that the generally accepted dependence of energy confinement on plasma density is not quite adequate because it is a consequence of dependence on radiation losses. The phenomenon of the appearance of internal transport barriers and magnetic islands can also be explained by plasma self-organization. The obtained results may be taken into account when calculating the operation of a future tokamak reactor.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/e22010053","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,1,3]],"date-time":"2020-01-03T03:28:53Z","timestamp":1578022133000},"page":"53","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Explanation of Experimentally Observed Phenomena in Hot Tokamak Plasmas from the Nonequilibrium Thermodynamics Position"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"22","author":[{"given":"Ksenia A.","family":"Razumova","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Kurchatov Complex of Thermonuclear Energy and Plasma Technologies, NRC \u2018Kurchatov Institute\u2019, 123182 Moscow, Russia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Valerii F.","family":"Andreev","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Kurchatov Complex of Thermonuclear Energy and Plasma Technologies, NRC \u2018Kurchatov Institute\u2019, 123182 Moscow, Russia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Nadezhda V.","family":"Kasyanova","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Kurchatov Complex of Thermonuclear Energy and Plasma Technologies, NRC \u2018Kurchatov Institute\u2019, 123182 Moscow, Russia"},{"name":"General Physics Chair, Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology, Dolgoprudny, 141701 Moscow, Russia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1529-2088","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sergey E.","family":"Lysenko","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Kurchatov Complex of Thermonuclear Energy and Plasma Technologies, NRC \u2018Kurchatov Institute\u2019, 123182 Moscow, Russia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,12,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"013022","DOI":"10.1088\/0029-5515\/55\/1\/013022","article-title":"Towards an emerging understanding of non-locality phenomena and non-local transport","volume":"55","author":"Ida","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nuclear Fusion"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"ITER Physics Expert Groups and ITER Physics Editors (1999). Chapter 2: Particle confinement and transport. Nuclear Fusion, 39, 2175\u20132250.","DOI":"10.1088\/0029-5515\/39\/12\/302"},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"261","article-title":"Nonclassical transport and the principle of profile consistency","volume":"5","author":"Coppi","year":"1980","journal-title":"Comments Plasma Phys. Control. Fusion"},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"443","article-title":"Self-orgainzation of tokamak plasma","volume":"13","author":"Kadomtsev","year":"1987","journal-title":"Sov. J. Plasma Phys."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1139","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevLett.33.1139","article-title":"Relaxation of toroidal plasma and generation of reverse magnetic fields","volume":"33","author":"Taylor","year":"1974","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. Lett."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1253","DOI":"10.1088\/0741-3335\/28\/9A\/005","article-title":"Investigation of plasma confinement on Soviet tokamaks","volume":"28","author":"Esiptchuk","year":"1986","journal-title":"Plasma Phys. Control. Fusion"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"065011","DOI":"10.1088\/0029-5515\/49\/6\/065011","article-title":"Tokamak plasma self-organization and the possibility to have the peaked density profile in ITER","volume":"49","author":"Razumova","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nuclear Fusion"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"053023","DOI":"10.1088\/0029-5515\/55\/5\/053023","article-title":"Interpretation of tokamak self-consistent pressure profiles","volume":"55","author":"Dyabilin","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nuclear Fusion"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"685","DOI":"10.1134\/S1063780X15090044","article-title":"Thermodynamic approach to the interpretation of self-consistent pressure profiles in a tokamak","volume":"41","author":"Dyabilin","year":"2015","journal-title":"Plasma Phys. Rep."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"799","DOI":"10.1088\/0741-3335\/37\/8\/001","article-title":"Perturbative transport studies in fusion plasmas","volume":"37","year":"1995","journal-title":"Plasma Phys. Control. Fusion"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"793","DOI":"10.1088\/0741-3335\/45\/5\/320","article-title":"High density experiments with gas puffing and ECRH in T-10","volume":"45","author":"Esipchuk","year":"2003","journal-title":"Plasma Phys. Control. Fusion"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1043","DOI":"10.1134\/S1063780X1711006X","article-title":"Improvement of plasma energy confinement in tokamak under radiative cooling of the edge plasma","volume":"43","author":"Razumova","year":"2017","journal-title":"Plasma Phys. Rep."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"A379","DOI":"10.1088\/0741-3335\/41\/3A\/031","article-title":"Overview of experiments with radiation cooling at high confinement and high density in limited and diverted discharges","volume":"41","author":"Ongena","year":"1999","journal-title":"Plasma Phys. Control. Fusion"},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"221","article-title":"Recovery of a Neo Alcator type scaling with auxillary heating in radiatively cooled discharges on TEXTOR-94","volume":"18","author":"Messiaen","year":"1997","journal-title":"Comments Plasma Phys. Control. Fusion"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115003","DOI":"10.1088\/1361-6587\/aada6b","article-title":"Impurity transport in T-10 plasmas with ohmic heating","volume":"60","author":"Krupin","year":"2018","journal-title":"Plasma Phys. Control. Fusion"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3662","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevLett.72.3662","article-title":"Internal transport barrier on q = 3 surface and poloidal plasma spin up in JT-60U high-\u03b2p discharges","volume":"72","author":"Koide","year":"1994","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. Lett."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"B107","DOI":"10.1088\/0741-3335\/47\/12B\/S09","article-title":"Safety factor profile requirements for electron ITB formation in TCV","volume":"47","author":"Goodman","year":"2005","journal-title":"Plasma Phys. Control. Fusion"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1373","DOI":"10.1088\/0741-3335\/48\/9\/007","article-title":"Link between self-consistent pressure profiles and electron internal transport barriers in tokamaks","volume":"48","author":"Razumova","year":"2006","journal-title":"Plasma Phys. Control. Fusion"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1067","DOI":"10.1088\/0029-5515\/44\/10\/002","article-title":"Reduced core transport in T-10 and TEXTOR discharges at rational surfaces with low magnetic shear","volume":"44","author":"Razumova","year":"2004","journal-title":"Nuclear Fusion"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"809","DOI":"10.1134\/S1063780X16090087","article-title":"Mechanisms governing radial heat fluxes in tokamak plasma","volume":"42","author":"Razumova","year":"2016","journal-title":"Plasma Phys. Rep."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"B435","DOI":"10.1088\/0741-3335\/46\/12B\/037","article-title":"Hybrid advanced scenarios: Perspectives for ITER and new experiments with dominant RF heating","volume":"46","author":"Gormezano","year":"2004","journal-title":"Plasma Phys. Control. Fusion"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"075007","DOI":"10.1088\/0029-5515\/49\/7\/075007","article-title":"Internal transport barrier dynamics with plasma rotation in JET","volume":"49","author":"Joffrin","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nuclear Fusion"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1167","DOI":"10.1088\/0029-5515\/43\/10\/018","article-title":"Internal transport barrier triggering by rational magnetic flux surfaces in tokamaks","volume":"43","author":"Joffrin","year":"2003","journal-title":"Nuclear Fusion"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"691","DOI":"10.1134\/S1063780X13090079","article-title":"Formation of an internal transport barrier and magnetohydrodynamic activity in experiments with the controlled density of rational magnetic surfaces in the T-10 tokamak","volume":"39","author":"Razumova","year":"2013","journal-title":"Plasma Phys. Rep."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"013015","DOI":"10.1088\/0029-5515\/55\/1\/013015","article-title":"Dynamics of multiple flux tubes in sawtoothing KSTAR plasmas heated by electron cyclotron waves: I. Experimental analysis of the tube structure","volume":"55","author":"Choe","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nuclear Fusion"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114011","DOI":"10.1088\/0029-5515\/52\/11\/114011","article-title":"ELM control experiment in the KSTAR device","volume":"52","author":"Jayhyun","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nuclear Fusion"}],"container-title":["Entropy"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1099-4300\/22\/1\/53\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T13:46:56Z","timestamp":1760190416000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1099-4300\/22\/1\/53"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,12,30]]},"references-count":26,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,1]]}},"alternative-id":["e22010053"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/e22010053","relation":{},"ISSN":["1099-4300"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1099-4300"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,12,30]]}}}