{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,26]],"date-time":"2026-03-26T14:39:35Z","timestamp":1774535975521,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":101,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,13]],"date-time":"2020-09-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1599955200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"University of California Agricultural Station","award":["Personal grant to Prof. Bai-Lian Li"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Personal grant to Prof. Bai-Lian Li"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Entropy"],"abstract":"<jats:p>As humanity struggles to find a path to resilience amidst global change vagaries, understanding organizing principles of living systems as the pillar for human existence is rapidly growing in importance. However, finding quantitative definitions for order, complexity, information and functionality of living systems remains a challenge. Here, we review and develop insights into this problem from the concept of the biotic regulation of the environment developed by Victor Gorshkov (1935\u20132019). Life\u2019s extraordinary persistence\u2014despite being a strongly non-equilibrium process\u2014requires a quantum-classical duality: the program of life is written in molecules and thus can be copied without information loss, while life\u2019s interaction with its non-equilibrium environment is performed by macroscopic classical objects (living individuals) that age. Life\u2019s key energetic parameter, the volume-specific rate of energy consumption, is maintained within universal limits by most life forms. Contrary to previous suggestions, it cannot serve as a proxy for \u201cevolutionary progress\u201d. In contrast, ecosystem-level surface-specific energy consumption declines with growing animal body size in stable ecosystems. High consumption by big animals is associated with instability. We suggest that the evolutionary increase in body size may represent a spontaneous loss of information about environmental regulation, a manifestation of life\u2019s algorithm ageing as a whole.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/e22091025","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,13]],"date-time":"2020-09-13T21:11:32Z","timestamp":1600031492000},"page":"1025","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":15,"title":["Life\u2019s Energy and Information: Contrasting Evolution of Volume- versus Surface-Specific Rates of Energy Consumption"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"22","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8598-5851","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anastassia M.","family":"Makarieva","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Theoretical Physics Division, Petersburg Nuclear Physics Institute, Gatchina 188300, Russia"},{"name":"USDA-China MOST Joint Research Center for AgroEcology and Sustainability, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521-0124, USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3101-4790","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Andrei V.","family":"Nefiodov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Theoretical Physics Division, Petersburg Nuclear Physics Institute, Gatchina 188300, Russia"}]},{"given":"Bai-Lian","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"USDA-China MOST Joint Research Center for AgroEcology and Sustainability, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521-0124, USA"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Brillouin, L. 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