{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,22]],"date-time":"2026-04-22T13:25:57Z","timestamp":1776864357033,"version":"3.51.2"},"reference-count":77,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,25]],"date-time":"2021-11-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1637798400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Ministerio de Ciencia, Innovaci\u00f3n y Universidades de Espa\u00f1a","award":["RTC2019-007350-1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RTC2019-007350-1"]}]},{"name":"European Comission","award":["0702_MIGRAINEE_2_E"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["0702_MIGRAINEE_2_E"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Entropy"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Neurofeedback training (NFT) has shown promising results in recent years as a tool to address the effects of age-related cognitive decline in the elderly. Since previous studies have linked reduced complexity of electroencephalography (EEG) signal to the process of cognitive decline, we propose the use of non-linear methods to characterise changes in EEG complexity induced by NFT. In this study, we analyse the pre- and post-training EEG from 11 elderly subjects who performed an NFT based on motor imagery (MI\u2013NFT). Spectral changes were studied using relative power (RP) from classical frequency bands (delta, theta, alpha, and beta), whilst multiscale entropy (MSE) was applied to assess EEG-induced complexity changes. Furthermore, we analysed the subject\u2019s scores from Luria tests performed before and after MI\u2013NFT. We found that MI\u2013NFT induced a power shift towards rapid frequencies, as well as an increase of EEG complexity in all channels, except for C3. These improvements were most evident in frontal channels. Moreover, results from cognitive tests showed significant enhancement in intellectual and memory functions. Therefore, our findings suggest the usefulness of MI\u2013NFT to improve cognitive functions in the elderly and encourage future studies to use MSE as a metric to characterise EEG changes induced by MI\u2013NFT.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/e23121574","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,29]],"date-time":"2021-11-29T05:23:02Z","timestamp":1638163382000},"page":"1574","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":18,"title":["Neurofeedback Training Based on Motor Imagery Strategies Increases EEG Complexity in Elderly Population"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"23","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7493-5242","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Diego","family":"Marcos-Mart\u00ednez","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Biomedical Engineering Group, E.T.S.I. Telecomunicaci\u00f3n, University of Valladolid, Paseo de Bel\u00e9n 15, 47011 Valladolid, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3822-1787","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"V\u00edctor","family":"Mart\u00ednez-Cagigal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Biomedical Engineering Group, E.T.S.I. Telecomunicaci\u00f3n, University of Valladolid, Paseo de Bel\u00e9n 15, 47011 Valladolid, Spain"},{"name":"Centro de Investigaci\u00f3n Biom\u00e9dica en Red en Bioingenier\u00eda, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), 28029 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7688-4258","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Eduardo","family":"Santamar\u00eda-V\u00e1zquez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Biomedical Engineering Group, E.T.S.I. Telecomunicaci\u00f3n, University of Valladolid, Paseo de Bel\u00e9n 15, 47011 Valladolid, Spain"},{"name":"Centro de Investigaci\u00f3n Biom\u00e9dica en Red en Bioingenier\u00eda, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), 28029 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2999-3216","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sergio","family":"P\u00e9rez-Velasco","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Biomedical Engineering Group, E.T.S.I. Telecomunicaci\u00f3n, University of Valladolid, Paseo de Bel\u00e9n 15, 47011 Valladolid, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9915-2570","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Roberto","family":"Hornero","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Biomedical Engineering Group, E.T.S.I. Telecomunicaci\u00f3n, University of Valladolid, Paseo de Bel\u00e9n 15, 47011 Valladolid, Spain"},{"name":"Centro de Investigaci\u00f3n Biom\u00e9dica en Red en Bioingenier\u00eda, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), 28029 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"767","DOI":"10.1016\/S1388-2457(02)00057-3","article-title":"Brain-computer interfaces for communication and control","volume":"113","author":"Wolpaw","year":"2002","journal-title":"Clin. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wolpaw, J., and Wolpaw, E.W. (2012). 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