{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,24]],"date-time":"2026-02-24T08:45:45Z","timestamp":1771922745645,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":99,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,28]],"date-time":"2022-03-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1648425600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001637","name":"Trinity College Dublin","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["1481-9050961"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1481-9050961"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001637","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Entropy"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The idea of agent causation\u2014that a system such as a living organism can be a cause of things in the world\u2014is often seen as mysterious and deemed to be at odds with the physicalist thesis that is now commonly embraced in science and philosophy. Instead, the causal power of organisms is attributed to mechanistic components within the system or derived from the causal activity at the lowest level of physical description. In either case, the \u2018agent\u2019 itself (i.e., the system as a whole) is left out of the picture entirely, and agent causation is explained away. We argue that this is not the right way to think about causation in biology or in systems more generally. We present a framework of eight criteria that we argue, collectively, describe a system that overcomes the challenges concerning agent causality in an entirely naturalistic and non-mysterious way. They are: (1) thermodynamic autonomy, (2) persistence, (3) endogenous activity, (4) holistic integration, (5) low-level indeterminacy, (6) multiple realisability, (7) historicity, (8) agent-level normativity. Each criterion is taken to be dimensional rather than categorical, and thus we conclude with a short discussion on how researchers working on quantifying agency may use this multidimensional framework to situate and guide their research.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/e24040472","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,29]],"date-time":"2022-03-29T21:44:52Z","timestamp":1648590292000},"page":"472","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":14,"title":["Naturalising Agent Causation"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"24","author":[{"given":"Henry D.","family":"Potter","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Smurfit Institute of Genetics, Trinity College Dublin, D02 VF25 Dublin, Ireland"},{"name":"Institute of Neuroscience, Trinity College Dublin, D02 PN40 Dublin, Ireland"}]},{"given":"Kevin J.","family":"Mitchell","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Smurfit Institute of Genetics, Trinity College Dublin, D02 VF25 Dublin, Ireland"},{"name":"Institute of Neuroscience, Trinity College Dublin, D02 PN40 Dublin, Ireland"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Reid, T. (1983). Thomas Reid\u2019s Inquiry and Essays, Hackett Pub. Co.. [1st ed.]."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.1111\/1468-0114.00083","article-title":"A Compatibilist Version of the Theory of Agent Causation","volume":"80","author":"Markosian","year":"1999","journal-title":"Pac. Philos. Q."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.5840\/philtopics2004321\/23","article-title":"Is Our Conception of Agent-Causation Coherent?","volume":"32","author":"Pereboom","year":"2004","journal-title":"Philos. Top."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Steward, H. (2012). Metaphysics for Freedom, Oxford University Press.","DOI":"10.1093\/acprof:oso\/9780199552054.001.0001"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Handfield, T. (2009). Agent-causal power. Dispositions and Causes, Clarendon Press.","DOI":"10.1093\/oso\/9780199558933.001.0001"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kim, J. (1993). Supervenience and Mind: Selected Philosophical Essays, Cambridge University Press.","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511625220"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"547","DOI":"10.1007\/s11229-006-9025-0","article-title":"Emergence: Core ideas and issues","volume":"151","author":"Kim","year":"2006","journal-title":"Synthese"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.5840\/philtopics19962427","article-title":"Agent Causation and Event Causation in the Production of Free Action","volume":"24","author":"Clarke","year":"1996","journal-title":"Philos. Top."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.1111\/tops.12134","article-title":"Marr and Reductionism","volume":"7","author":"Bickle","year":"2015","journal-title":"Top. Cogn. Sci."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110560","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtbi.2020.110560","article-title":"Imaging the living brain: An argument for ruthless reductionism from olfactory neurobiology","volume":"512","author":"Barwich","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Theor. Biol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"685","DOI":"10.2307\/2023177","article-title":"Actions, Reasons, and Causes","volume":"60","author":"Davidson","year":"1963","journal-title":"J. Philos."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Franklin, C.E. (2018). A Minimal Libertarianism: Free Will and the Promise of Reduction, Oxford University Press.","DOI":"10.1093\/oso\/9780190682781.001.0001"},{"key":"ref_13","first-page":"43","article-title":"Why agent-caused actions are not lucky","volume":"47","author":"Griffith","year":"2010","journal-title":"Am. Philos. Q."},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"413","article-title":"Event-causal libertarianism, functional reduction, and the disappearing agent argument","volume":"170","author":"Franklin","year":"2014","journal-title":"Philos. Stud. Int. J. Philos. Anal. Tradit."},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"67","article-title":"Eliminative Materialism and the Propositional Attitudes","volume":"78","author":"Churchland","year":"1981","journal-title":"J. Philos."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"499","DOI":"10.2307\/2214202","article-title":"Connectionism, eliminativism, and the future of folk psychology","volume":"Volume 4","author":"Ramsey","year":"1991","journal-title":"Philosophical Perspectives"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"305","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biosystems.2007.07.003","article-title":"Autonomy: What is it? Introduction","volume":"91","author":"Boden","year":"2008","journal-title":"Biosystems"},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Schopenhauer, A. (1960). Essay on the Freedom of the Will, Dover Publications."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Schr\u00f6dinger, E. (1994). What is Life? The Physical Aspects of the Living Cell, Cambirdge University Press."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"367","DOI":"10.1177\/1059712309343819","article-title":"Defining agency: Individuality, normativity, asymmetry, and spatio-temporality in action","volume":"17","author":"Barandiaran","year":"2009","journal-title":"Adapt. Behav."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Pross, A. (2016). What is Life? How Chemistry Becomes Biology, Oxford University Press. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Farnsworth, K.D. (2018). How Organisms Gained Causal Independence and How It Might Be Quantified. Biology, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/biology7030038"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Maturana, H.R., and Varela, F.J. (1980). Autopoiesis and Cognition: The Realization of the Living, D. Reidel. [1st ed.].","DOI":"10.1007\/978-94-009-8947-4"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Juarrero, A. (1999). Dynamics in Action: Intentional Behavior as a Complex System, CogNet.","DOI":"10.7551\/mitpress\/2528.001.0001"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"510","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pbiomolbio.2015.08.007","article-title":"What does the closure of context-sensitive constraints mean for determinism, autonomy, self-determination, and agency?","volume":"119","author":"Juarrero","year":"2015","journal-title":"Prog. Biophys. Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtbi.2015.02.029","article-title":"Biological organisation as closure of constraints","volume":"372","author":"Mossio","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Theor. Biol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2457","DOI":"10.1096\/fasebj.3.13.2680703","article-title":"Central pattern-generating neurons and the search for general principles","volume":"3","author":"Lydic","year":"1989","journal-title":"FASEB J."},{"key":"ref_28","first-page":"183","article-title":"Central pattern generator for locomotion: Anatomical, physiological, and pathophysiological considerations","volume":"3","author":"Guertin","year":"2012","journal-title":"Front. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"357","DOI":"10.1176\/ajp.114.4.357","article-title":"Sensory deprivation; a review","volume":"114","author":"Solomon","year":"1957","journal-title":"Am. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01586100","article-title":"Visual hallucinations in sensory deprivation. A review of the literature, a case report and a discussion of the mechanism","volume":"36","author":"Flynn","year":"1962","journal-title":"Psychiatr. Q."},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"379","article-title":"Alone again: John Zubek and the troubled history of sensory deprivation research","volume":"49","author":"Raz","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Hist. Behav. Sci."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"180","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2010.01.008","article-title":"Two views of brain function","volume":"14","author":"Raichle","year":"2010","journal-title":"Trends Cogn. Sci."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbrc.2020.12.011","article-title":"The brain as a dynamically active organ","volume":"564","author":"Brembs","year":"2021","journal-title":"Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3318","DOI":"10.1002\/hbm.25019","article-title":"Dark control: The default mode network as a reinforcement learning agent","volume":"41","author":"Dohmatob","year":"2020","journal-title":"Hum. Brain Mapp."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Buzs\u00e1ki, G. (2019). The Brain from Inside Out, Oxford University Press.","DOI":"10.1093\/oso\/9780190905385.001.0001"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pezzulo, G., and Nolfi, S. (2019). Making the Environment an Informative Place: A Conceptual Analysis of Epistemic Policies and Sensorimotor Coordination. Entropy, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/e21040350"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Clark, A. (2016). Surfing Uncertainty: Prediction, Action, and the Embodied Mind, Oxford University Press.","DOI":"10.1093\/acprof:oso\/9780190217013.001.0001"},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"Toader, I.D., Sandu, G., and P\u0203rvu, I. (2015). When Is a Mechanistic Explanation Satisfactory? Reductionism and Antireductionism in the Context of Mechanistic Explanations. Romanian Studies in Philosophy of Science, Springer."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"457","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.cellbio.13.1.457","article-title":"The two-component signaling pathway of bacterial chemotaxis: A molecular view of signal transduction by receptors, kinases, and adaptation enzymes","volume":"13","author":"Falke","year":"1997","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Cell Dev. Biol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1038\/nrmicro2505","article-title":"Signal processing in complex chemotaxis pathways","volume":"9","author":"Porter","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"262","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ceb.2011.11.008","article-title":"Responding to chemical gradients: Bacterial chemotaxis","volume":"24","author":"Sourjik","year":"2012","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1313","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1154456","article-title":"Predictive behavior within microbial genetic networks","volume":"320","author":"Tagkopoulos","year":"2008","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"264","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2015.00264","article-title":"The cognitive cell: Bacterial behavior reconsidered","volume":"6","author":"Lyon","year":"2015","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"363","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-cellbio-092910-154129","article-title":"Beyond homeostasis: A predictive-dynamic framework for understanding cellular behavior","volume":"28","author":"Freddolino","year":"2012","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Cell Dev. Biol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2899","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cub.2014.10.045","article-title":"Effects of locomotion extend throughout the mouse early visual system","volume":"24","author":"Erisken","year":"2014","journal-title":"Curr. Biol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1677","DOI":"10.1038\/s41593-019-0502-4","article-title":"Single-trial neural dynamics are dominated by richly varied movements","volume":"22","author":"Musall","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1038\/s41593-021-00980-9","article-title":"Large-scale neural recordings call for new insights to link brain and behavior","volume":"25","author":"Urai","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"266","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-019-1787-x","article-title":"Distributed coding of choice, action and engagement across the mouse brain","volume":"576","author":"Steinmetz","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"60","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conb.2020.02.008","article-title":"Brain-wide representations of ongoing behavior: A universal principle?","volume":"64","author":"Kaplan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R1088","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cub.2016.06.041","article-title":"The Basal Ganglia Over 500 Million Years","volume":"26","author":"Grillner","year":"2016","journal-title":"Curr. Biol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pneurobio.2019.02.001","article-title":"Are periaqueductal gray and dorsal raphe the foundation of appetitive and aversive control? A comprehensive review","volume":"177","author":"Silva","year":"2019","journal-title":"Prog. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20200522","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2020.0522","article-title":"Evolution of behavioural control from chordates to primates","volume":"377","author":"Cisek","year":"2022","journal-title":"Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"609","DOI":"10.1525\/bio.2013.63.8.2","article-title":"What Is Life, and Can We Create It?","volume":"63","author":"Kauffman","year":"2013","journal-title":"BioScience"},{"key":"ref_54","unstructured":"Dupr\u00e9, J. (2011). Processes of Life: Essays in the Philosophy of Biology, Oxford University Press."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kim, J. (1998). Mind in a Physical World: An Essay on the Mind\u2013Body Problem and Mental Causation, MIT Press.","DOI":"10.7551\/mitpress\/4629.001.0001"},{"key":"ref_56","unstructured":"Rovelli, C. (2021). Helgoland, Allen Lane."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"062107","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevA.100.062107","article-title":"Physics without determinism: Alternative interpretations of classical physics","volume":"100","author":"Gisin","year":"2019","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. A"},{"key":"ref_58","unstructured":"Smolin, L., and Verde, C. (2021). The quantum mechanics of the present. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1080\/00359190809519211","article-title":"On the nature of causation in complex systems","volume":"63","author":"Ellis","year":"2008","journal-title":"Trans. R. Soc. S. Afr."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"573","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tins.2018.05.008","article-title":"Does Neuroscience Leave Room for Free Will?","volume":"41","author":"Mitchell","year":"2018","journal-title":"Trends Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tse, P. (2013). The Neural Basis of Free Will: Criterial Causation, The MIT Press.","DOI":"10.7551\/mitpress\/9780262019101.001.0001"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conb.2019.02.002","article-title":"Towards the neural population doctrine","volume":"55","author":"Saxena","year":"2019","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3055","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2021.07.011","article-title":"The population doctrine in cognitive neuroscience","volume":"109","author":"Ebitz","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"901","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1460-9568.2006.04940.x","article-title":"Decision-making and Weber\u2019s law: A neurophysiological model","volume":"24","author":"Deco","year":"2006","journal-title":"Eur. J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conb.2020.09.009","article-title":"Statistical methods for dissecting interactions between brain areas","volume":"65","author":"Semedo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"249","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2019.01.026","article-title":"Cortical Areas Interact through a Communication Subspace","volume":"102","author":"Semedo","year":"2019","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"362","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2010.09.023","article-title":"Neural syntax: Cell assemblies, synapsembles, and readers","volume":"68","year":"2010","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"ref_68","first-page":"861","article-title":"Contrastive mental causation","volume":"198","year":"2019","journal-title":"Synthese"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dretske, F. (1988). Explaining Behavior: Reasons in a World of Causes, MIT Press. [1st ed.].","DOI":"10.7551\/mitpress\/2927.001.0001"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1085","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cub.2017.02.049","article-title":"Non-overlapping Neural Networks in Hydra vulgaris","volume":"27","author":"Dupre","year":"2017","journal-title":"Curr. Biol."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1177\/1059712312465330","article-title":"What nervous systems do: Early evolution, input\u2013output, and the skin brain thesis","volume":"21","author":"Keijzer","year":"2013","journal-title":"Adapt. Behav."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20190764","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2019.0764","article-title":"Reafference and the origin of the self in early nervous system evolution","volume":"376","author":"Jekely","year":"2021","journal-title":"Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Millikan, R.G. (1984). Language, Thought, and Other Biological Categories: New Foundations for Realism. A Bradford Book, MIT Press.","DOI":"10.7551\/mitpress\/4124.001.0001"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.2307\/2214217","article-title":"Pushmi-pullyu representations","volume":"9","author":"Millikan","year":"1995","journal-title":"Philos. Perspect."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shea, N. (2018). Representation in Cognitive Science, Oxford University Press. [1st ed.].","DOI":"10.1093\/oso\/9780198812883.001.0001"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1749-6632.2000.tb06266.x","article-title":"Levels of control and closure in complex semiotic systems","volume":"901","author":"Joslyn","year":"2000","journal-title":"Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2265","DOI":"10.3758\/s13414-019-01760-1","article-title":"Resynthesizing behavior through phylogenetic refinement","volume":"81","author":"Cisek","year":"2019","journal-title":"Atten. Percept. Psychophys."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"599","DOI":"10.2307\/2108082","article-title":"A coherence theory of autonomy","volume":"53","author":"Ekstrom","year":"1993","journal-title":"Philos. Phenomenol. Res."},{"key":"ref_79","first-page":"217","article-title":"Responsibility, Luck, and Chance: Reflections on Free Will and Indeterminism","volume":"96","author":"Kane","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Philos."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8613","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0701489104","article-title":"Evolution of individuality during the transition from unicellular to multicellular life","volume":"104","author":"Michod","year":"2007","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"447","DOI":"10.1086\/656905","article-title":"What is an individual organism? A multilevel selection perspective","volume":"85","author":"Folse","year":"2010","journal-title":"Q. Rev. Biol."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hoel, E.P. (2017). When the Map Is Better Than the Territory. Entropy, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/e19050188"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19790","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1314922110","article-title":"Quantifying causal emergence shows that macro can beat micro","volume":"110","author":"Hoel","year":"2013","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8932526","DOI":"10.1155\/2020\/8932526","article-title":"The Emergence of Informative Higher Scales in Complex Networks","volume":"2020","author":"Klein","year":"2020","journal-title":"Complexity"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rosas, F.E., Mediano, P.A.M., Jensen, H.J., Seth, A.K., Barrett, A.B., Carhart-Harris, R.L., and Bor, D. (2020). Reconciling emergences: An information-theoretic approach to identify causal emergence in multivariate data. PLoS Comput. Biol., 16.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pcbi.1008289"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1007\/s12064-020-00313-7","article-title":"The information theory of individuality","volume":"139","author":"Krakauer","year":"2020","journal-title":"Theory Biosci."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Albantakis, L. (2021). Quantifying the Autonomy of Structurally Diverse Automata: A Comparison of Candidate Measures. Entropy, 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/e23111415"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1162\/artl.2010.16.2.16204","article-title":"Measuring autonomy and emergence via Granger causality","volume":"16","author":"Seth","year":"2010","journal-title":"Artif. Life"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Buzs\u00e1ki, G. (2020). The Brain-Cognitive Behavior Problem: A Retrospective. eNeuro, 7.","DOI":"10.1523\/ENEURO.0069-20.2020"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Oizumi, M., Albantakis, L., and Tononi, G. (2014). From the phenomenology to the mechanisms of consciousness: Integrated Information Theory 3.0. PLoS Comput. Biol., 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pcbi.1003588"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4164","DOI":"10.4249\/scholarpedia.4164","article-title":"Integrated information theory","volume":"10","author":"Tononi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Scholarpedia"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"450","DOI":"10.1038\/nrn.2016.44","article-title":"Integrated information theory: From consciousness to its physical substrate","volume":"17","author":"Tononi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"461","DOI":"10.1016\/S1364-6613(99)01402-3","article-title":"Function, goals and intention: Children\u2019s teleological reasoning about objects","volume":"3","author":"Kelemen","year":"1999","journal-title":"Trends Cogn. Sci."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.1016\/S1364-6613(03)00128-1","article-title":"Teleological reasoning in infancy: The na\u00efve theory of rational action","volume":"7","author":"Gergely","year":"2003","journal-title":"Trends Cogn. Sci."},{"key":"ref_95","unstructured":"Dennett, D.C. (1987). The Intentional Stance, MIT Press. [1st ed.]."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1111\/phpe.12043","article-title":"Two Intuitions About Free Will: Alternative Possibilities And Intentional Endorsement","volume":"28","author":"List","year":"2014","journal-title":"Philos. Perspect."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wimsatt, W.C. (2007). Re-Engineering Philosophy for Limited Beings: Piecewise Approximations to Reality, Harvard University Press.","DOI":"10.2307\/j.ctv1pncnrh"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtbi.2019.06.002","article-title":"Is the cell really a machine?","volume":"477","author":"Nicholson","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Theor. Biol."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1093\/biostatistics\/kxx069","article-title":"Estimation of clinical trial success rates and related parameters","volume":"20","author":"Wong","year":"2019","journal-title":"Biostatistics"}],"container-title":["Entropy"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1099-4300\/24\/4\/472\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T22:45:10Z","timestamp":1760136310000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1099-4300\/24\/4\/472"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,28]]},"references-count":99,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,4]]}},"alternative-id":["e24040472"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/e24040472","relation":{},"ISSN":["1099-4300"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1099-4300","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,28]]}}}